How a costume of a certain era conveys the worldview of people. Main functions of the suit

Russian folk costume, preserved in peasant life until the beginning of the 20th century, is a monument to the material and spiritual culture of a nation, humanity, and a separate era. Having emerged as a man-made object for utilitarian purposes, expressing the aesthetic feelings of a person, a folk costume at the same time represents an artistic image, the content value of which is closely related to its functions. This is one of the most widespread types of folk art and decorative arts in general.

Chapter I. Historical, cultural and sociological analysis of Russian folk costume of the European part
1. Aesthetic nature of folk costume, its main functions

A folk costume is a holistic artistic ensemble that carries a certain figurative content, determined by its purpose and established traditions. It is formed by harmoniously coordinated items of clothing, jewelry and accessories, shoes, hairstyle, headdress, and makeup. The art of costume organically combines various types of decorative creativity: weaving, embroidery, lace-making, hemming, sewing, appliqué and the visual use of various materials: fabrics, leather, fur, bast, beads, beads, sequins, buttons, silk ribbons, braid, braid, lace, bird feathers, freshwater pearls, mother-of-pearl, colored faceted glass, etc.

An assembled folk costume is an ensemble built in the natural rhythm of lines, planes and volumes, on the correspondence of texture and plasticity of fabrics, on the organizing role of decor and color, on the connection of utilitarian and artistic merits.

The existence of this type of folk arts and crafts was determined by tradition - the historical continuity of the ideological, aesthetic and artistic achievements of previous generations. “Tradition “flickers” in history,” writes I.T. Kasavin, “but it also creates it, being a form of organic growth of spontaneous human activity into regular and law-like social practice. And here it (already as a concept) turns out to be a way of forming historical consciousness, which reveals in tradition not just outdated norms of activity and thinking, but “clumps of historical concrete experience, necessary stages in the development of social relations.”

The custodians of the ancient traditions of folk costume among the Russians, like most other peoples, were peasants. They lived in harmonious unity with their native nature, and through it they comprehended the meaning of Beauty, Goodness, and Truth. Russian peasant clothing was protection from heat and cold, was comfortable, “harmonized with the dominant type of face and figure of the local residents,” had amulet, protective and prestigious meanings, and played an important ritual role in rituals and holidays. Syncretism as the organic unity of folk art, the indivisibility of different types of creativity in it, each of which, according to Yu.B. Borev, “included not only the rudiments of various types of artistic activity, but also the rudiments of scientific, philosophical, religious and moral consciousness,” defined form and principles of folk costume. Therefore, when reconstructing the semantic content of Russian folk costume, it is necessary to involve such diverse and interdependent materials as mythology, information about customs and rituals, folklore, take into account the technological knowledge of folk craftsmen, etc.

Unlike the fine arts, whose artistic language contains life-like forms, Russian folk costume as an expressive art directly conveys people’s figurative perception of life with the help of an aesthetically perfect form. They do not directly resemble the display object, but convey concepts related to life. At the same time, this does not exclude elements of figurativeness, for example, in the ornament of Russian folk costume there are motifs of the human figure, birds, animals and plants, as well as horned forms of women's headdresses.

According to the method of practical artistic development of the material, Russian peasant costume, like other types of folk arts and crafts, belongs to the arts that use mainly natural materials: leather, fur, wool and plant fibers, bast, etc. The aesthetic nature of the impact of a costume on a person is visual. The material certainty of a folk costume, the natural properties of natural materials, its sensual concreteness, which determine the perception of the costume ensemble, simultaneously characterize its aesthetic impact.

The aesthetic in Russian folk costume is its natural, artistic and social characteristics in their universal human meaning. Russian folk costume was created according to the laws of the universal aesthetic category - beauty and was based on the diversity of aesthetic properties of reality, which, according to Yu.B. Borev, “arise due to the fact that in the process of activity a person includes the phenomena of the world in the sphere of his practice and places them in a certain value attitude towards humanity, while revealing the degree of their development, the historically determined degree of a person’s possession of them and the measure of his freedom.”

The beauty in Russian folk costume is manifested in its ability to transform a person - to make him beautiful, as well as in convenience, economy and expediency, in the creative disclosure of the possibilities and features of materials, in the harmony of color and rationality of design, in the beauty of the silhouette and in growing on the basis of all this decorative splendor, depth of ideological content and its broad positive universal significance.

At the same time, it must be emphasized that not every costume created by any peasant woman can be called a masterpiece, that is, an exemplary work that is the highest achievement of folk art and craftsmanship. Only that example of Russian folk costume belongs to the masterpieces, evokes a strong aesthetic feeling and deep artistic experience, in which there is an organic unity of the rational and emotional, all factors of artistic expression, turning the costume into a concept of beauty, into the embodiment of the folk idea of ​​beauty.

Among the aesthetic features of Russian folk costume is the stability of the system of aesthetic principles, created by collective creativity over many generations, with the aesthetic originality of each costume.

In Russian folk costume, the owner’s belonging to the Christian faith was manifested, for example, by wearing crosses; icons and crosses attached to beads, metal chains, beaded ribbons, worn on the chest over clothing. Along with the cross, a belt was considered a sign of belonging to Christianity. “He walks like a Tatar: without a cross, without a belt,” people said. A. A. Lebedeva writes that “before, walking without a belt was considered a sin. Unbelting a person meant dishonoring him... A belt was put on a newborn immediately after baptism.”

The belt is a commandment of God, the Old Believers believed and wore belts with woven words of prayers and names. The dead were buried with a belt, and during fortune telling, the belt, like the cross, was necessarily removed. According to G.S. Maslova, “only the demons of the disease seemed beltless, crossless - the twelve fevers (Yuryevsky district of the Kostroma province) and mermaids.”

Life-affirming color saturation of festive costumes along with a strictly limited color palette mourning clothes or the comicality of witty combinations in the costumes of the mummers reflected the diversity, on the one hand, of aesthetic functions, on the other, the richness of the implementation of reality, which contributed to the development of an emotional reaction adequate to the people's worldview. The incomparable expressiveness of the decor and monumental forms of Russian folk costume evoke a quick emotional reaction (emotive function), and the deep ideological and figurative content requires time to understand (cognitive-heuristic function). The ideological and aesthetic impact of the suit left a certain imprint on life and its perception, forcing one to relate oneself, one’s actions, and one’s manner of behavior to the image of the suit (ethical function).

The majestic solemnity of forms and the joyful decorativeness of festive clothes contributed to the affirmation of a person, on the one hand, in respect for the team, for tradition, and on the other hand, in his personal self-worth, and determined the compensatory and hedonistic functions of folk costume.

Based on the above, it can be argued that Russian folk costume, as a concentrated artistic expression of social practice, has a cognitive, educational, and most importantly - aesthetic function that permeates these and all its other functions.

P. G. Bogatyrev rightly noted that “the aesthetic function forms a common structure with the erotic function and often seems to hide this latter..., both functions are aimed at the same thing - to attract attention. Attracting attention to a certain object, which is "One of the main aspects of the aesthetic function also turns out to be one of the aspects of the erotic function, since the girl seeks to attract the attention of young people or one of them. Thus, the erotic function often merges with the aesthetic function."

The beauty of Russian folk costume brings joy to people, awakens the artists in them, teaches them to feel and understand beauty, and create in accordance with its laws. Folk clothing expresses the aspirations of its wearer, cultivates the ability to find the measure of objects as their properties correspond to the social needs of a person, forms the aesthetic value orientation of a person in the world and, therefore, not only reflects the world, but also transforms and creates it.

2.The art of folk costume as an expression of social consciousness

Along with morality, religion, science, philosophy, politics and law, folk art, and in particular Russian folk costume, are forms of social consciousness. B. A. Ehrengross writes: “All forms of social consciousness are united by the fact that they reflect reality, and differ in what they reflect in it, how and in what form. Their origin is different, their role in the development of society is different.”

The aesthetic value of Russian folk costume depends only on its beauty and utilitarian qualities, but also on its inherent ability to be a bearer of personal, class, national and universal cultural meanings, to be an exponent of the social circumstances in which it is included.

Researchers note different approaches to the formation of festive and everyday costumes. If utilitarian functions prevailed in the everyday costume, then the festive folk costume symbolized the unity of the spiritual life of the individual and the team; traditionally it expressed “a person’s involvement in any generally significant event”, had complex socio-cultural functions, surpassed the everyday one in the quality of material, decorativeness, quantity of details and decorations

This was most clearly expressed in women's festive and ritual costumes, which were most lavishly decorated, were rich in magical and religious content, symbolism of vital meanings and goals, were distinguished by a pronounced originality and therefore had the greatest aesthetic and artistic value. In the best examples of women's festive and ritual costumes, there is a harmonious balance of emotional-figurative and utilitarian-material principles, content and methods of expression.

A. S. Pushkin noted: “The climate, the way of government, the faith give each people a special physiognomy... There is a way of thinking and feeling, there is a darkness of customs, beliefs and habits that belong exclusively to some people.” About the national originality of the aesthetic perception of reality, the outstanding Russian historian V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “Each people by nature is supposed to perceive from the surrounding world, as from experienced destinies, and transform into their character not just any, but only known impressions, and from here comes diversity national warehouses or types, just as unequal light susceptibility produces a variety of colors."

It should be noted that the aesthetic attitude of Russian peasants to their costume was determined primarily by their social interests, religious beliefs- paganism and Christianity, national psychology. The great power of the aesthetic impact of folk clothing is due to its close proximity to a person in his Everyday life and hourly use, and therefore mass perception.

Thus, the nationality of the peasant costume is explained by the fact that it is a phenomenon of the practical and spiritual activity of the people, an expression of their interests and needs, stereotypes of perception and thinking, value and emotional structures. At the same time, the people act as the object and subject, the creator and custodian of this necessary and understandable type of decorative and applied creativity.

“Nation,” said V. Solovyov, “is the most important factor in natural human life and development national identity, is a great success in the history of mankind."

I. S. Turgenev emphasized: “Outside the nationality, there is no art, no truth, no life - there is nothing.”

The tradition of Russian folk costume can be considered through a system of correlation of such concepts as collective and individual, tribal and social, national and other ethnic, universal.

Collectivity is an aesthetic category that characterizes the worldview of the peasantry, the structure and principle of their artistic creativity, which determines the gradual creation, testing, selection and rethinking of their traditional costume by the people (collective). It is the collectivity of the process of creating Russian folk costume that explains the incomparable depth and ambiguity of its content, and the inexhaustible variety of decorative solutions.

The individual, personal, and subjective were expressed in peasant clothing through the general, collective, determined by tribal, religious, national, and historical consciousness. In this regard, the problem of ethnic self-awareness is revealed as a spiritual community with a clan and people and, in particular, as a predetermination of an individual’s aesthetic experiences by the entire mass of collective experiences of his clan and people (in the present and past). According to the correct definition of G. G. Shpet, “the spiritual wealth of an individual is the past of the people to which he considers himself.”

“The appearance in folk decorative art of perfect works, classical in their artistic principles, is the result of the creativity of talented, gifted masters... Bright talent in folk art,” writes T. M. Razina, “is therefore bright and significant because it is most profound and fully assimilates the traditional, the most living and relevant in it, sensitively captures what at a given historical moment is most in tune with the aesthetic and spiritual needs of the people around him.”

The individuality of a craftswoman in a folk costume is manifested in the degree of integrity of the coloristic solution, the depth and complexity of the content of the ornamentation, the harmony of the composition, and the level of proficiency in the entire traditional complex of needlework (spinning, weaving, dyeing and bleaching fabric, embroidery, lace-making, hemming, sewing, etc.).

Folk costume, in the totality of original stable ideological and artistic principles, in the unity of natural and folk, collective and individual as a whole, concentratedly expresses the Russian national character and the system of folk aesthetic ideas. As you know, every nation first of all recognizes and values ​​its national identity. And the more original the national vision, writes Yu. B. Borev, the more it carries within itself unique, generally valid information and experience of relationships. This is precisely the most important condition for the high artistry and global sound of a work."

When studying the patterns of development of traditional Russian folk costume, along with intranational artistic interactions, it is important to take into account the influence of the processes of ethnocultural integration of Russians both with related Slavic peoples (Ukrainians and Belarusians), and with other close neighbors, for example, with the peoples of the Baltic states. For the East Slavic peoples, the most ancient forms of shirts, girls' and women's headdresses, jewelry, some types of shoes, etc. were common. The ancient commonality of the genetic roots of the traditional costumes of the Eastern, Western and Southern Slavs is most clearly evidenced, for example, by the types of women's belt clothing.

Russia's vibrant economic ties with various countries of the world, significant imports of fabrics, dyes and various haberdashery goods also influenced the formation of Russian traditional clothing. The inclusion of other ethnic elements in it was determined both by the similarity of ideological concepts and by the need for the culture itself to develop. At the same time, with regard to foreign ethnic influences in peasant clothing, it is appropriate to recall the statement of K. Gradova that “in Russia, all foreign influences in the field of costume, being perceived, gradually dissolved and were absorbed by Russian traditions, without changing the main line of its development”1. From this we can conclude that the national originality of Russian folk costume was enhanced by the interaction of various ethnic cultures in it; the international and universal things acquired a clearly national expression in it.

The natural environment and social relations determined the cultural context in which the Russian folk costume existed: philosophy, politics, morality, religion and other forms of social consciousness, the previous artistic tradition and, finally, life, morals, customs, lifestyle, human activities, etc. etc. At the same time, Russian folk costume as an art form was syncretic, since it was an integral part of ritual syncretism, which included, along with it, song, dance, instrumental tunes, games, works of verbal and poetic creativity, and ritual and household paraphernalia. Before the revolution, traditional rituals and holidays were a powerful means of uniting the nation and nurturing its unique culture. V. Berezkin notes: “Everything that a person created with his imagination and with his own hands was considered by him to be part of one or another ritual.” It should be added that the utilitarian in folk costume, as well as in the ritual as a whole, was imbued with the aesthetic, and the philosophical, religious, and moral were presented as aesthetic values.

Thus, purposeful value-oriented creative activity in folk art, in particular in the creation and perception of Russian folk costume, included people in the aesthetic transformation of life, educated them and enlightened them. In this light, the Russian folk costume acted as an important means of communication (communicative function), carried a large amount of information about its owner (information function) and thereby contributed to cultural understanding both among the peasantry and in contacts with representatives of other social groups of the population, carried out transfer of artistic and historical experience from generation to generation.

3.Specifics artistic image folk costume and its local features

The process of creating a folk costume is an aesthetic transformation of life experience into artistic images, carried out by the talent and skill of the people with the help of imagination through the prism of worldview (aesthetic ideals) on a strong basis of tradition.

The artistic image is a specific form of mastering the world in art in all its diversity and richness, harmonious integrity and dramatic collisions.

One of the most important features of artistic folk thinking is metaphoricality, i.e. synthesis of natural and cultural phenomena according to a general characteristic or property. In a peasant costume, it appears especially clearly in the ornamentation, in the shapes and names of women's headdresses, in the presence of a general process of formation of structural levels of space and the similarity of decorative solutions of a folk costume, a peasant hut and an ancient Russian temple, in the similarity of the names of their individual elements, as well as in their commonality at the semantic level (connection with cosmology and anthropomorphic image). This was pointed out in their works on folk art by I.E. Zabelin, D.K. Zelenin, M.A. Nekrasova, T. N. Tropina. M.A. Nekrasova, in particular, writes that Russian folk costume participated, along with the interior of the house and folk architecture, in the creation of “a spiritual-spatial environment capable of influencing a person and shaping his inner world.” Emphasizing the comprehensive nature of the ensemble principle, she states: “A separate image in folk art operates in the context of the entire system of interacting images. This is where ensembleness is expressed both in a separate work, and in a specific type of creativity and in folk art in general.”

Developing the thesis about the metaphorical nature of folk artistic thinking, it is necessary to mention that the motifs of female figures in the ornament often seem to sprout flowers and shoots, and the sun appears either as a bird, or as a fire-breathing horse or deer. In the forms and names of women's headdresses, there is a connection with real images of animals (horned kitties) and birds - kokoshniks (from the Slavic “kokosh” - rooster or hen), “magpies” and their components called “tail”, “wing flaps”, "wings". Through such aesthetically transformed combinations of artistic images, peasants recognized themselves as an integral part of nature, tried to magically influence it, and symbolically expressed Russian poetic mythology.

It should be emphasized that all elements of the peasant costume ensemble are saturated with multi-valued symbolism, due to the mythological and syncretic nature of folk thinking. Their totality forms an artistic ideological and figurative concept, very stable and holistic. It reflects the peasants’ ideas about the universe and embodies the idea of ​​​​the fertility of the earth, which in their minds is directly connected with the fertility of a woman, “moreover, one could not be thought of without the other, and the magic of fertility implied the influence of a woman’s fertility on the earth.”

The deity of fertility in works of Russian folk art was depicted as women. A clear confirmation of this can be the story of I. D. Fedyushina that during excavations of the settlements of the first farmers on the site of the village of Tripolye near Kiev, figurines were found depicting women in a conventional manner. Examining them with X-rays showed that they were created from clay mixed with wheat grains. Scientists suggest that everyone sought to have a similar image of the goddess in their home, as they associated it with obtaining a rich harvest.

One of the largest folklorists of the 19th century, a famous researcher Slavic mythology A. N. Afanasyev noted: “In the ancient poetic language, herbs, flowers, shrubs and trees are called the hair of the earth. Recognizing the earth as a living, self-acting being (she gives birth from her mother’s womb, drinks rainwater, trembles convulsively during earthquakes, falls asleep in winter and awakens with the age of spring), primitive tribes compared the wide expanses of land with a gigantic body, they saw its bones in solid rocks and stones, blood in waters, veins in tree roots, and, finally, hair in herbs and plants.”

The objectively practical attitude of the Russian people to nature, the use of analogies of nature and the human body, formed the ideas of anpropomorphic nature and cosmic man. Together with the organic unity of a person with a social group for Russians (family, clan, class, etc.), this was the basis for the formation of stable traditions of the ideological and figurative structure of folk art, the polyphonic unity of its architectural, plastic, pictorial, poetic means and methods of embodiment.

V.V. Kolesov, emphasizing common sense and eternal human values ​​inherent in the worldview of the Russian people, he writes: “In a time when every third year there was a shortage of food, and every ten years a mass of people were carried away in various pestilences, the dream of daily bread is a dream of a good, correct life... Economics is inspired by ethics, but only in the term-word is the subtle difference between all the hypostases of life realized: a person lives life according to Christian custom, but the basis of life is the stomach - this is precisely life in all the fullness of its manifestations..." This statement successfully explains the priority in the minds of peasants of the important ideas of fertility and land and women, and also confirms the thesis of G. V. Plekhanov that “precious things seem beautiful.”

We emphasize that the harmonious ensemble of traditional artistic images reveals the beauty in Russian folk costume, its universal aesthetic value. About the peculiar syncretism of artistic thinking V. E. Gusev writes that “it is not due to the underdevelopment of the latter, but to the nature of the very subject of artistic knowledge, to the fact that the masses recognize the subject of their art primarily as an aesthetic whole and integral in the totality of all or many of its aesthetic qualities, in the versatility and complexity of its aesthetic nature."

When exploring the problem, it is important to note that the main creative principles when creating Russian folk costume were variability and improvisation based on traditional local types of costume. Improvisation was manifested in the fact that the costume was created directly in the process of its manufacture. This shows an analogy with improvisation in folk music performance. If folk musicians relied in their practice of improvisation on traditional forms of musical thinking (a certain range of chants, intonations, rhythms, etc.), then the craftswomen of folk costume in each locality had their favorite established artistic images, embodied through the use of certain color combinations, methods artistic decoration, etc. By combining the consolidation of a once found musical or artistic image with the free variation of its elements, the people updated and enriched both their music and their costume. Free variation of elements is based on their ambiguity, on the existence of a number of semantically and stylistically related options that characterize the performing dynamism of creating a costume and any other work of folk art. Thus, the concept of tradition does not mean peace, but a movement of a special type, that is, balance achieved by the interaction of opposites, the most important of which are stability (preservation of certain principles and techniques) and variability (variation), and the improvisation that exists on its basis.

So, the artistic image of Russian folk costume is an inextricable interpenetrating unity of objective and subjective, rational and emotional, symbolic and concrete, collective and individual, whole and part, stable and changeable, stereotypical and improvisational. In this fusion, carried out with the help of means specific to the art of Russian folk costume (material, silhouette, color, ornamentation, composition, ways of wearing and completing costume details, etc.), artistic images of both individual parts of the costume and entire costumes are created complexes expressing certain aesthetic ideas and feelings. Thanks to the system of artistic images, Russian folk costume is able to fulfill its aesthetic function, through which its cognitive significance and powerful ideological, educational, moral impact on people are manifested.

Differences in geographical, climatic and historical conditions of the vast territory of Russia became the reason for the emergence of a wide variety of local styles of Russian folk costume. Despite the unconditional dependence on magical and religious content, the style of folk costume as an artistic, aesthetic and socio-historical category is nevertheless primarily characterized by a system of artistic and expressive means.

The structure of the artistic form of expression as a whole is complex and multi-valued. In each costume, the style reflects not only national-stage characteristics, but also its regional and ethno-local typological features, determines the principles of artistic and constructive organization of all elements of the artistic language of the costume, its details into a culturally integral complex.

The concept of all-Russian style implies a commonality of stylistic features of all ethno-local costume complexes, rooted in socio-historical conditions, in the worldview of Russian peasants, their creative method, and in the laws of the artistic and historical process. The general stylistic features of all complexes of Russian folk costume include: material, straight cut, significant fullness and length of clothes, multi-layering, magical and religious symbolism, certain color preferences, methods of artistic decoration, and an abundance of all kinds of decorations.

4.History of the social existence of Russian folk costume

The formation of the national characteristics of Russian folk costume took place in the XIV-XVI centuries. simultaneously with the identification of Russian (Great Russian) ethnic identity and the spread of the ethnonym “Russians”.

By the 17th century The main costume complexes were fully formed.

It should be noted that the social environment of Russian folk costume has changed throughout the history of its existence. The researchers note that characteristic feature Old Russian clothing was that the costume of different segments of the population differed mainly in the number of details and variety of materials with the same cut of its individual parts. At the same time, the peculiarities of national aesthetic views include the presence of a nationwide aesthetic ideal of beauty. “The Russians,” writes M. G. Rabinovich, “who retained state independence for centuries, had national features expressed in the costume of the feudal elite right up to Peter’s reforms.” In the 17th century It was considered extremely important on special occasions to be required to wear Russian traditional dress, even for foreigners. So, in 1606, Marina Mnishek was married in Moscow in the Assumption Cathedral with False Dmitry I at the insistence of the boyars in Russian dress. Later, ceremonial Russian clothes were issued to foreign ambassadors specifically for their ceremonial presentation to the sovereign.

In the first years of the 18th century, by decree of Peter I, the ruling classes had to switch to compulsory wearing of foreign-style dress. However, “since the reform did not affect such a huge layer of society as the peasantry, it was the peasant costume that became truly popular. In its vein, the clothing of the Cossacks, Pomors, one-lords, and various groups of the Old Believer population developed.” Having submitted to the whims of Western European fashion, representatives of the upper strata of society were forced to abandon the original Russian ideas about the beauty of appearance, clothing, and manners. The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 caused an upsurge of patriotic feelings, and many society ladies began to wear stylized Russian national costumes, which consisted of a shirt with a deep neckline (in fashion early XIX c.), a slanted or straight sundress, tied with a belt under the chest, a kokoshnik, a headband or a crown.

The best people Russia has always understood the vital need to carefully preserve the identity of the Russian national culture, and in particular the suit. In the early 20s. 19th century brilliant polymath, poet, thinker and statesman A. S. Griboyedov, whom A. S. Pushkin considered one of the smartest people in Russia, wrote:

Let me be declared an Old Believer,
But our North is a hundred times worse for me
Since I gave everything in exchange for a new way -
And morals, and language, and holy antiquity,
And stately clothes for another
According to the jester's model...

Further, through the mouth of Chatsky, A. S. Griboyedov exclaims with bitterness: “Will we ever be resurrected from the foreign power of fashion?” The seriousness of the great Russian poet’s approach to the problem of returning to national traditions in clothing, as well as the government’s negative attitude towards this idea, which at that time was identified primarily with the trends of democratization of society, is confirmed by the fact that during the investigation into the case of the Decembrists, A. S. Griboyedov was the question was asked: “In what sense and for what purpose did you, by the way, in conversations with Bestuzhev, not indifferently desire Russian dress and freedom of printing?”

N.I. Lebedeva and G.S. Maslova noted that the costumes of the burghers and merchants long retained features common to peasant clothing. In the middle of the 19th century. “Russian attire” - a sundress and a kokoshnik - was worn in many cities. Among the townspeople, especially among the richest, it differed from the peasants' in expensive materials and precious decorations."

In the second half of the 19th century. Writers of the Slavophile movement dressed in Russian folk dress for ideological reasons. Their contemporary D.N. Sverbeev wrote: “The Slavophiles were not limited to printing and writing for print alone various articles, were not satisfied with the oral preaching of their teachings - they wanted to manifest it with outward signs, and so first a murmuring hat appeared, and then a zipun, and, finally, a beard.”

Discussing folk costume as a sign of class, P. G. Bogatyrev notes that in Russia “rich merchants, sometimes millionaires, wore predominantly “semi-men’s” costume in order to show that they wear their costume, indicating their class status, with a sense of superiority and do not want to become like officials and nobles who are often poorer in comparison.”

At the beginning of the 20th century. Russian folk costume was worn by such prominent representatives of the creative intelligentsia as V.V. Stasov, f. I. Shalyapin, M. Gorky, L. A. Andreev, S. A. Yesenin, N. A. Klyuev.

It is noteworthy that in the 20th century. At the royal court there were receptions at which the ladies-in-waiting, according to the royal decree of 1834, were required to wear costumes stylized as Russian boyar attire. Admiration for the beauty of Russian folk costume was expressed in their works by L. N. Tolstoy, I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Bunin, M. A. Sholokhov and many other wonderful Russian writers.

Considering the issue of ethnic consciousness and spiritual culture, K. V. Chistov expressed the idea that “any awareness of the elements of material culture as iconic or symbolic can give them an ideological character.” These words are clearly confirmed by the history of Russian folk costume, which at all times personified the idea of ​​preserving national identity and acted as a means of dialogical communication between Russia’s past and its present and future.

Creating unforgettable images of Russian people and depicting them in traditional national costumes, outstanding Russian artists A. G. Venetsianov, V. I. Surikov, V. M. Vasnetsov, M. V. Nesterov, F. A. Malyavin, K. A. Korovin and many others significantly contributed to the aesthetic orientation of his contemporaries and descendants and the transformation of Russian folk costumes into an ethnic symbol.

At the beginning of the 20th century. The founder of the use of traditional forms and the nature of ornamentation, the decorative principles of folk clothing in creating costumes for modern everyday life was the generally recognized fashion designer N.P. Lamanova. Her clothing models and theoretical articles convincingly proved that “the expediency of folk costume, thanks to the centuries-old collective creativity of the people, can serve as both ideological and plastic material embedded in our city clothes.”

Thanks to the efforts of major researchers and ethnographers D.K. Zelenin, N.M. Mogilyanskaya, N.P. Grinkova, collectors I.Ya. Bilibin, A.V. Khudorozheva, N.L. Shabelskaya and many other qualified specialists, magnificent collections have been collected Russian folk costume, which have enormous historical and artistic value. Among them, in the first place are meetings State Museum ethnography of the peoples of the USSR in St. Petersburg, the State Historical Museum in Moscow.

In the post-October period, an extremely rapid destruction of the centuries-old way of life and customs of the Russian village began, the impoverishment of peasants and their mass migration to live in cities. At the same time, almost all family, calendar and religious rituals and holidays were classified as “relics of the dark past” and were completely eradicated as not corresponding to the new Soviet reality. This largely explains the disappearance from the life of the people of traditional costume and many other integral components of ritual syncretism, the decline in the general level of skill in almost all types of traditional art. The seventy-year destruction of national identity in Russia, and primarily in the Russian village, led to the eradication of many of its ethnic symbols and shrines from the consciousness of the Russian people. So, in the 30s. The tradition of making Russian folk costume has died out. From the stage, from the cinema screen, and then from the television screen, a new stereotype of pseudo-Russian attire was imposed, in which the national style and ideological content of Russian clothing were distorted beyond recognition.

The history of the social existence of Russian national clothing allows us to assert that its aesthetic impact at all times is great and extends to the entire Russian people as a whole.

What is an ordinary worldview?

Everyday worldview- a person’s views, which are based on everyday experience and logical conclusions.

Ordinary thinking allows an individual to accumulate all experience accumulated over generations, for its successful application in practice.

By observing other people from one’s surroundings, listening to the advice of the older generation, learning information from books, a person acquires certain skills.

These ideas about how society and the world work, allow him not only to function in the present time, but also to predict his future.

Everyday worldview helps to cover all the mass key issues: attitude towards the world around us, towards other people, towards ourselves.

Thanks to the everyday worldview people learn the following important skills:

• self-service;
• communication ( , );
• physical work;
• building family and kinship relationships;
• raising offspring;
• leisure activities;
• celebration of significant events;
• participation in rituals;
• taking care of your health, safety, etc.

Characteristics and signs

The characteristic features include the following:

Functions: briefly in the table

The following can be distinguished key functions of the everyday worldview:

Function	Manifestation
Information-reflective	All phenomena, events and images that a person absorbs from the surrounding reality are reflected in his consciousness in accordance with his existing attitudes and principles. When receiving information from the outside, each person perceives it in his own way, since the structure of the everyday worldview is different for everyone.
Orientation-regulatory	In his actions and decisions, a person is guided by his inner worldview. His actions correspond to his beliefs moral principles. If in the course of life existing views on certain issues change, then the assessment of the corresponding situations will change.
Estimated	The individual perceives all the phenomena observed around him through the prism of his everyday worldview. As a result, he can evaluate any phenomenon in accordance with existing views and beliefs.

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Advantages and disadvantages

This type of thinking has both strengths and weaknesses.

Strengths:

• is based on common sense;
• based on everyday experience.

Weak sides:

• insignificant use of scientific data, religious views;
• lack of necessary criticality and objectivity;
• Often they are based on habits and superstitions.

Advantages and disadvantages

Despite the many advantages of everyday thinking, it also has a number of disadvantages:

The advantages of an ordinary worldview:

• helps to navigate in the present;
• allows you to understand a difficult life situation (predict the development of events, find a way out, anticipate possible consequences);
• helps to objectively assess the achievability of set goals,
• allows you to determine the desired development of events;
• helps to make forecasts for the future.

The disadvantages include:

• the experience and knowledge gained are often subjective in nature, since they are transmitted from the immediate environment with their individual beliefs and opinions;
• attitudes obtained on the basis of habits, superstitions, and subjective experience often contradict scientific facts;
• the experience gained, which a person continues to rely on, may become irrelevant.

Examples from life

Peculiarities

The everyday type of worldview is formed spontaneously throughout a person’s life. It cannot be placed within a certain framework or structured into a system.

Every day a person, in the process of his activities and as a result of observing other people, receives new information, which is processed and perceived by him.

In its pure form, everyday thinking could not exist due to its unsystematic nature and some abstractness.

To be sustainable, it needs to combine elements of mythology, religion, and science. This allows you to add the necessary rationality, practicality, and objectivity.

Thus, the emotionally figurative, fantastic perception of reality, which underlies the mythological worldview, often becomes part of everyday views.

Also, objective data obtained as a result of scientific research become an integral part of everyday life.

For example, a person’s everyday ideas about building family relationships can also be based on scientific information received from psychological literature, and not only on the experience of previous generations.

The influence of moral principles preached by religion on the formation of everyday views is also great. A person participates in traditional rituals (baptism, funeral, funeral service) not only for reasons of common sense and his experience, but also due to the presence of certain religious beliefs.

The borrowing of individual practical components of other types of worldview by the everyday worldview makes it possible to provide not only emotional ( attitude), but also the rational component ( worldview).

A person successfully combines his own feelings obtained as a result of observations and experience with some practical data.

As a result, a set of ideals and samples is formed. They help you navigate life and make decisions. The world around us is being organized, becoming understandable and accessible.

The absence of an ordinary worldview would turn a person's life into complete chaos, in which there would be no clear understanding of the goals and paths of development.

The psyche of an individual without everyday attitudes would be in constant tension, since a person would not be able to predict and predict the development of events.

Thus, the everyday worldview, despite a number of shortcomings, plays a big role in the life of every person. Its presence allows an individual to exist safely in society, relying on common sense and existing experience.

2 ways of worldview - ordinary and philosophical:

1.3 Main functions of the suit

The entire diversity of the objective world is located in the field of two poles - material-practical and artistic.

On the functional plane, the costume system forms a spectrum of forms that combine these two principles in different ways: from purely practical (overalls) to artistic (suits from couturier collections). The second principle is sometimes called iconic or symbolic, however specified function The costume is also polar, because it can serve as a sign practically (uniform) and artistically (to express ideas, moods).

The universal function of a suit in culture is to adapt and fit a person into a particular life context to ensure productive communication and successful activities. The suit simultaneously adapts to the environment and transforms it in the required direction.

Historically, the first and fundamental generalized function of a costume is instrumental and practical.

The function of protecting the body from various environmental influences. All factors from which a person is forced to protect himself can be divided into three main groups: the natural environment, enemies (people and animals) and dangers associated with human activity. A sign of the practicality of a suit is its comfort, durability, ease of use, and properties that provide maximum protection from conditions unfavorable to the body. The function of concealing the body directly arises from the practical function. In addition to the physical protection of the body, a person also needs psychological protection with the help of a suit, this is largely due to the feeling of shame inherent in a person as a social being.

The social functions of the costume form two main branches: informing functions and shaping functions.

Information is due to the fact that the costume carries information about its wearer as an individual and as a representative of a certain social group.

One of these functions is the class function. The clothing of various classes is initially determined by their inherent way of life; its fixed form works as a sign indicating a particular layer of society. Often this function is intertwined with a function indicating status in the field of human relations. And in modern world this function of the suit exists (for example, in a business suit - the thinner the stripe, the higher the status of its owner). Often different classes have different ethical, aesthetic, etc. norms, which is also reflected in the suit. In a class society it is simply necessary to have external differences that establish the nature of communication.

The function of reflecting nationality arose very early.

This is evidenced by the differences in the costumes of the first ethnic groups living simultaneously in the same region. This function is most clearly manifested in such a phenomenon as folk, national costume. It is traditional and practically not subject to change. This is a kind of symbol of the nation, which is usually shown to foreigners.

Such a costume tells us about the life paradigm of a given community of people. The concept of national costume is being updated as a reaction to cosmopolitanism.

The function of indicating religion is usually closely related to the previous function, since the connection of certain nations with certain religions, as well as their branches and heretical movements, has historically developed and been consolidated. Each religion establishes and determines certain forms of costume, special colors, accessories and details. Depending on the degree of influence of religion on the life of society in a given period, this function, one way or another, affects all forms and types of costume.

The function of indicating professional affiliation developed during the transition from a subsistence economy to a market structure, with a division of labor. Each business has its own professionals, and the same type of suit. Its form largely depended on the specifics of the activity and contained elements common to all, uniting people of the same profession into a certain corporation, thereby emphasizing the commonality of occupations, which leaves an imprint on their character, worldview, and attitude towards others. The human need to belong to a group in society, to be “one of us” somewhere, which gives him a sense of reliability, contributes to the creation of various uniforms. We even characterize groups of people by naming the elements of their clothing, we say, for example: “people in white coats”, “people in uniform”, “white collar workers” and everyone immediately understands who we are talking about.

Now let us note the main functions of informing about the wearer of the costume as an individual.

Age indication function. For a long time, there have been differences between children's and adult costumes. Within these groups there are gradations: small children, teenagers, young people, old people.

Clothes have special details for the older generation and special ones for the younger.

Here are some examples: a bow or bib is always a symbol of childhood for us, a scarf tied on a woman’s head is usually associated with old age, a suit with obvious elements of eroticism is associated with youth. Such symbols are firmly entrenched in culture.

The function, indications of gender, is one of the early ones. It is carried out by all elements of the costume: there are men's and women's clothing, shoes, accessories, jewelry. There are also special men's women's materials and colors. Signs of femininity and masculinity, of course, changed among different nations and in different eras, but were always present.

So, in the 17th century, men widely used chic lace, but now it is the prerogative of ladies, one of the symbols of femininity. The exception, perhaps, is the end of the 20th century, with its idea of ​​unisex. There are often cases when we really cannot distinguish between a man and a woman in a crowd. This function has served as the reason for numerous cases of dressing men and women in clothes that are unusual for them throughout the history of mankind. Sometimes it was considered forbidden, sinful, sometimes funny.

Function, expression of everyday differences in the sphere of family relationships. For example, among the Slavic peoples in their national costume there have always been a lot of differences between the girl’s costume and married woman. One braid was a sign of girlhood. This function is often closely intertwined with the function of reflecting compliance with the requirements of sexual morality that the team makes. In our example, seduced girls should already have some details from a married woman’s costume.

Function for indicating the type of activity. To adapt to different environmental conditions, people invented appropriate costumes.

This will create a suit for sports, a suit for agricultural work, a bathing suit, a suit for dancing, going to the forest, etc.

However, now there is a strong tendency to universalize the suit, which of course simplifies life to a certain extent. One such example is jeans. Many believe that they are suitable for all occasions, but this impoverishes the expressive qualities of the costume and prevents it from fulfilling its many functions.

The second powerful branch of social functions is the formation of the external and internal appearance of a person.

The function of figure shaping is aimed at correcting appearance, leveling or emphasizing certain body properties in accordance with public and personal ideals. The most striking example here is perhaps the use of heels. Appearing in the 17th century, it opens up completely new era emphasizing bodily plasticity. The heel is of great importance in bringing out certain features of the female body. He changes the proportions, the very manner of holding himself.

A costume in line with the corresponding rituals is able to create certain moods and simulate a social situation. This ritual function has many faces. She did necessary appearance a special costume that carries a symbolic as well as magical meaning. One striking example is a wedding dress. Such costumes are usually used for unique, isolated situations in a person’s life. They are traditional in form.

One of the varieties of the ritual function is the festive function of the costume.

It is aimed at creating an appropriate atmosphere and the significance of any event. A festive costume has a clearly expressed artistic potential, but practical properties are often completely lost, leaving only those that are directly related to the specifics of what is happening at the holiday. An enhanced version is a formal suit.

People's love for carnivals has been known since ancient times, but if in a situation of general holiday it is just a game, relaxation, a joke, then in real life, when people wear costumes that are not typical for them, the problem becomes more complicated.

What goals does the person pursue in this case? Does he want to hide his essence in order to fit into the social context, to successfully enter into the communication process, or does he want to feel different, to be transported to an imaginary situation, or is he driven by the desire to change, to become different?

In any case, with the help of a suit, he models the desired image. Looking at a person, we can say that this one is a conservative person, this one is frivolous, and this one is a romantic person. This function developed with the complication of costume forms, because new, more suitable means of expressing feelings and emotions, character, dreams and aspirations appeared. A person consciously or unconsciously creates his own style that would adequately express his ideals.

A suit helps a person change, to feel like one thing or another. But the reverse process also occurs, when a suit affects a person’s mood, feelings and even thoughts.

Function of forming an artistic image. The “haute couture” collections can be fully described as artistic costume. Artistic communication is the implementation of an intellectual-emotional creative connection between the author and the wearer of the costume, the transfer to others of artistic information containing a certain attitude to the world of costume and the life of society, an artistic concept, and value orientations.

So, we looked at the main functions of the suit, so to speak, “in its pure form.” But real life always more difficult. Each specific suit, as a rule, implements the interaction of these initial functions in different proportions. Interweaving with other cultural systems expands the functional field of the costume, which gives rise to unique actions unfolding in the cultural space. They require from the viewer and participant not so much knowledge as understanding.

Introduction

The Middle Ages... When we think about them, the walls of knightly castles and huge Gothic cathedrals grow before our mental gaze, we remember the crusades and strife, the fires of the Inquisition and feudal tournaments - the whole textbook set of signs of the era. But these are external signs, a kind of scenery against which people act. What are they? What was their way of seeing the world, what guided their behavior? If we try to restore the spiritual appearance of the people of the Middle Ages mentally, cultural foundation, which they lived, it will turn out that this time is almost completely absorbed by the thick shadow cast on it by classical antiquity, on the one hand, and the Renaissance, on the other. How many misconceptions and prejudices are associated with this era?

The concept " middle age", which arose several centuries ago to designate the period separating Greco-Roman antiquity from modern times, and from the very beginning carried a critical, derogatory assessment - a failure, a break in cultural history Europe - has not lost this content to this day. When talking about backwardness, lack of culture, lack of rights, they resort to the expression “medieval”.

Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance and is divided into the culture of the early period (V-XI centuries) and the culture of the classical Middle Ages (XII-XIV centuries). The appearance of the term “Middle Ages” is associated with the activities of Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, new type political system, as well as global changes in people's worldview.

The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious overtones. The basis of the medieval picture of the world was images and interpretations of the Bible. The starting point for explaining the world was the idea of ​​a complete and unconditional opposition between God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body. The man of the Middle Ages imagined and understood the world as an arena of confrontation between good and evil, as a kind of hierarchical system, including God, angels, people, and otherworldly forces of darkness.

Along with the strong influence of the church, the consciousness of medieval man continued to remain deeply magical. This was facilitated by the very nature of medieval culture, filled with prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells. In general, the cultural history of the Middle Ages is a history of the struggle between church and state. The position and role of art in this era were complex and contradictory, but nevertheless, throughout the entire period of development of European medieval culture, there was a search for the semantic support of the spiritual community of people.

All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual leadership of the church, but, nevertheless, each of them developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals.

The purpose of the work is to study the era, life, and costume of Western Europe in the 11th-13th centuries.

) study the development of the Middle Ages of the XI-XIII centuries;

) consider life and costume in the XI-XIII centuries.

1. Development of the Middle Ages of the XI-XIII centuries

At the stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), crafts, trade, and city life had a rather low level of development. The dominance of feudal lords - landowners - was undivided. The figure of the king was decorative in nature, and did not personify strength and state power. However, from the end of the 11th century. (especially France) the process of strengthening royal power begins and centralized feudal states are gradually created, in which the feudal economy rises, contributing to the formation of the cultural process.

The Crusades carried out at the end of this period were important. These campaigns contributed to the acquaintance of Western Europe with the rich culture of the Arab East and accelerated the growth of crafts.

At the stage of development of the mature (classical) European Middle Ages (11th century), there was a further growth in the productive forces of feudal society. A clear division is established between city and countryside, and intensive development of crafts and trade occurs. Royal power assumes significant importance. This process was facilitated by the elimination of feudal anarchy. The royal power was supported by knighthood and wealthy citizens. A characteristic feature of this period is the emergence of city-states, for example, Venice and Florence.

During this period, all European peoples (French, Spanish, Italians, English, etc.) were formed, the main European languages ​​(English, Italian, French, etc.) were formed, and national states were formed, the borders of which generally coincide with modern ones. Many values ​​that are perceived in our time as universal, ideas that we take for granted, originate in the Middle Ages (the idea of ​​​​the value of human life, the idea that an ugly body is not an obstacle to spiritual perfection, attention to inner world person, the conviction that it is impossible to appear naked in public places, the idea of ​​love as a complex and multifaceted feeling, and much more). Herself modern civilization arose as a result of the internal restructuring of medieval civilization and in this sense is its direct heir.

The socio-political system that established itself in Europe in the Middle Ages is usually called feudalism in historical science. This word comes from the name of the land ownership that a representative of the ruling class received for military service. This possession was called a fief. Not all historians believe that the term feudalism is successful, since the concept on which it is based is not capable of expressing the specifics of the average European civilization. In addition, there was no consensus on the essence of feudalism. Some historians see it in a system of vassalage, others in political fragmentation, and still others in a specific mode of production. Nevertheless, the concepts of feudal system, feudal lord, feudal-dependent peasantry have firmly entered into historical science.

Therefore, we will try to characterize feudalism as a socio-political system characteristic of European medieval civilization. A characteristic feature of feudalism is feudal ownership of land. Firstly, it was alienated from the main manufacturer. Secondly, it was conditional, thirdly, hierarchical in nature. Fourthly, it was connected with political power. The alienation of the main producers from land ownership was manifested in the fact that the land on which the peasant worked was the property of large landowners - feudal lords. The peasant had it in use. For this, he was obliged to either work on the master's field several days a week or pay quitrent - in kind or in cash. Therefore, the exploitation of peasants was of an economic nature. Non-economic coercion - the personal dependence of the peasants on the feudal lords - played the role of an additional means. This system of relations arose with the formation of two main classes of medieval society: feudal lords (secular and spiritual) and the feudal-dependent peasantry.

Feudal ownership of land was conditional, since the feud was considered granted for service. Over time, it turned into a hereditary possession, but formally it could be taken away for non-compliance with the vassal agreement. The hierarchical nature of property was expressed in the fact that it was, as it were, distributed among a large group of feudal lords from top to bottom, therefore complete private property no one owned the land. The trend in the development of forms of ownership in the Middle Ages was that the feud gradually became full private property, and dependent peasants, turning into free ones (as a result of the redemption of personal dependence), acquired some ownership rights to their land plot, receiving the right to sell it subject to payment feudal lord special tax.

The combination of feudal property with political power was manifested in the fact that the main economic, judicial and political unit in the Middle Ages was a large feudal estate - seigneury. The reason for this was the weakness of the central government under the dominance of subsistence farming. At the same time, in medieval Europe, a certain number of allodist peasants remained - full private owners. There were especially many of them in Germany and Southern Italy.

Many researchers consider the monopolization of military affairs by the ruling class to be one of the most important signs of feudalism. War was the destiny of knights. This concept, which initially meant simply a warrior, eventually came to mean the privileged class of medieval society, spreading to all secular feudal lords. However, it should be noted that where allodist peasants existed, they, as a rule, had the right to bear arms. The participation of dependent peasants in the crusades also shows that this feature of feudalism is not absolute.

The feudal state, as a rule, was characterized by the weakness of the central government and the dispersion of political functions. On the territory of a feudal state there was often a number of virtually independent principalities and free cities. In these small state formations, dictatorial power sometimes existed, since there was no one to resist the large landowner within a small territorial unit.

A characteristic phenomenon of medieval European civilization since the 11th century. there were cities. The question of the relationship between feudalism and cities is debatable. Cities gradually destroyed the natural character of the feudal economy, contributed to the liberation of peasants from serfdom, and contributed to the emergence of a new psychology and ideology. At the same time, the life of the medieval city was based on the principles characteristic of medieval society. The cities were located on the lands of feudal lords, so initially the population of the cities was in feudal dependence on the lords, although it was weaker than the dependence of the peasants. The medieval city was also based on such a principle as corporatism. The townspeople were organized into workshops and guilds, within which egalitarian tendencies operated. The city itself was also a corporation.

This became especially clear after the liberation from the power of the feudal lords, when cities received self-government and urban rights. But precisely because the medieval city was a corporation, after liberation it acquired some features that made it similar to the city of antiquity. The population consisted of full-fledged burghers and non-members of corporations: beggars, day laborers, and visitors. The transformation of a number of medieval cities into city-states (as was the case in ancient civilization) also shows the opposition of cities to the feudal system. As commodity-money relations developed, central state power began to rely on cities. Therefore, cities contributed to overcoming feudal fragmentation - characteristic feature feudalism. Ultimately, the restructuring of medieval civilization took place precisely thanks to cities.

Medieval European civilization was also characterized by feudal-Catholic expansion. Its most common cause was the economic rise of the 11th-13th centuries, which caused an increase in population, which began to lack food and land (population growth outpaced the possibilities of economic development). The main directions of this expansion were the Crusades in the Middle East, the annexation of Southern France to the French kingdom, the Reconquista (liberation of Spain from the Arabs), the crusaders' campaigns in the Baltic states and the Slavic lands. In principle, expansion is not a specific feature of medieval European civilization.

2. Life and costume in the XI-XIII centuries.

During this period, all life events took on forms that were outlined much more sharply than in our time. Suffering and joy, misfortune and good fortune are much more palpable; human experiences retained the degree of completeness and spontaneity with which the soul of a child perceives grief and joy to this day. Every action, every deed followed a developed and expressive ritual, rising to a durable and unchanging way of life. Important events: birth, marriage, death - thanks church sacraments reached the brilliance of mystery. Things that are not so significant, such as travel, work, business or friendly visits, were also accompanied by repeated blessings, ceremonies, sayings and were furnished with certain rituals.

There was no way to expect relief from the misfortunes and deprivation; at that time they were much more painful and terrible. Illness and health were much more different, the frightening darkness and severe cold in winter were a real evil. They reveled in nobility and wealth with greater greed and more earnestly, for they opposed glaring poverty and rejection much more sharply. A fur-lined cloak, a hot fire from the hearth, wine and a joke, a soft and comfortable bed brought that enormous pleasure, which later, perhaps thanks to English novels, invariably became the most vivid embodiment of everyday joys. All aspects of life were displayed arrogantly and rudely. The lepers twirled their rattles and gathered in processions, the beggars screamed on the porches, exposing their squalor and deformities. Conditions and classes, ranks and professions were distinguished by clothing. Noble gentlemen moved only resplendent in the splendor of their weapons and attire, to the fear and envy of everyone. The administration of justice, the appearance of merchants with goods, weddings and funerals were loudly announced with shouts, processions, crying and music. Lovers wore the colors of their lady, members of the fraternity wore their emblem, and supporters of an influential person wore corresponding badges and insignia.

The appearance of cities and villages was also dominated by diversity and contrasts. The medieval city did not, like our cities, merge into shabby outskirts with simple houses and dull factories, but acted as a single whole, surrounded by walls and bristling with formidable towers. No matter how tall and massive the stone houses of merchants or nobles were, the temple buildings with their bulk reigned majestically over the city.

The difference between summer and winter was felt more sharply than in our lives, as well as between light and darkness, silence and noise. Because of the constant contrasts, the diversity of forms of everything that affected the mind and feelings, everyday life excited and inflamed passions, which manifested themselves either in unexpected explosions of crude unbridledness and brutal cruelty, or in outbursts of spiritual responsiveness, in the changeable atmosphere of which the life of the medieval city flowed.

The processions were undoubtedly a deeply moving spectacle. In bad times - and they happened often - the processions replaced each other, day after day, week after week. And then there were the ceremonial entrances of brilliant nobles, arranged with all the cunning and skill that the imagination was capable of. And in never-ending abundance - executions. The cruel excitement and raw sympathy evoked by the spectacle of the scaffold were an important part of the spiritual food of the people. These are performances with moral teaching. Horrible punishments are invented for terrible crimes. Often those convicted were noble gentlemen, and then the people received an even more vivid satisfaction from the execution of inexorable justice and an even more cruel lesson in the frailty of earthly greatness than any pictorial depiction of the Dance of Death could provide. The authorities tried not to miss anything to achieve the effect of the entire performance: signs of the high dignity of the convicts accompanied them during this mournful procession.

Everyday life invariably gave endless freedom to ardent passions and children's imagination. Modern medieval studies, which, due to the unreliability of the chronicles, primarily turns, as far as possible, to sources that are of an official nature, thereby unwittingly falls into a dangerous error. Such sources do not sufficiently highlight the differences in lifestyle that separate us from the Middle Ages. They make us forget about the intense pathos of medieval life. Of all the passions that colored it, they tell us only about two: greed and belligerence. Who would not be amazed by the almost incomprehensible fury and constancy with which self-interest, quarrelsomeness, and vindictiveness come to the fore in the legal documents of the late Middle Ages! Only in connection with this passion that overwhelmed everyone, scorching all aspects of life, can one understand and accept the aspirations characteristic of those people. That is why chronicles, even if they skim the surface of the events described and also often give false information, are absolutely necessary if we want to see this time in its true light.

Life still retained the flavor of a fairy tale. If even court chroniclers, noble, learned people, close associates of the sovereigns, saw and depicted the latter in nothing other than an archaic, hieratic form, then what must the magical splendor of royal power have meant to the naive popular imagination! The uniqueness of the medieval cities of Western Europe was given by their socio-political system. All other features - population concentration, narrow streets, walls and towers, occupations of citizens, economic and ideological functions and political role - could also be inherent in cities of other regions and other eras. But only in the medieval West the city is invariably presented as a self-regulating community, endowed with a relatively high degree of autonomy and possessing special rights and a fairly complex structure.

Chivalry is a special privileged social stratum of medieval society. Traditionally, this concept is associated with the history of the countries of Western and Central Europe, where, during the heyday of the Middle Ages, essentially all secular feudal warriors belonged to knighthood. But more often this term is used in relation to medium and small feudal lords as opposed to the nobility. For the continental countries of Western Europe, the rules of vassal relations reflected the principle: “my vassal’s vassal is not my vassal,” while, for example, in England (the Salisbury oath of 1085) direct vassal dependence of all feudal landowners on the king was introduced with mandatory service in royal army.

The hierarchy of vassal relations repeated the hierarchy of land holdings and determined the principle of the formation of the military militia of the feudal lords. Thus, along with the establishment of military-feudal relations, the formation of knighthood took place as a serving military-feudal class, which flourished in the 11th-14th centuries. Military affairs became his main social function. The military profession gave rights and privileges, determined special class views, ethical standards, traditions, and cultural values.

The military duties of the knights included protecting the honor and dignity of the overlord, and most importantly, the land from encroachments both from neighboring feudal rulers in internecine wars, and from troops of other states in the event of an external attack. In conditions of civil strife, the line between protecting one’s own possessions and seizing other people’s lands was quite unsteady, and a champion of justice in words often turned out to be an invader in reality, not to mention participating in conquest campaigns organized by the royal authorities, such as the numerous campaigns of the German emperors in Italy, or by the Pope himself, like the Crusades. The knightly army was a powerful force. Its weapons and battle tactics corresponded to military tasks, the scale of military operations and the technical level of its time. Protected by metal military armor, knightly cavalry, low-vulnerable to foot soldiers and peasant militia, played the main role in battle.

Feudal wars did not exhaust the social role of chivalry. In conditions of feudal fragmentation and the relative weakness of royal power, knighthood, bound by a system of vassalage into a single privileged corporation, protected the feudal lords’ ownership of land, the basis of their domination. A striking example of this is the history of the suppression of the largest peasant uprising in France - the Jacquerie (1358-1359), which broke out during the Hundred Years' War. At the same time, the knights representing the warring parties, the British and the French, united under the banners of the Navarrese king Charles the Evil and turned their weapons against the rebellious peasants, deciding a common social problem. Chivalry also influenced the political processes of the era, since the social interests of the feudal class as a whole and the norms of knightly morality to a certain extent restrained centrifugal tendencies and limited the feudal freemen. During the process of state centralization, knighthood (medium and small feudal lords) constituted the main military force of the kings in their opposition to the nobility in the struggle for the territorial unification of the country and real power in the state.

Participation in the knightly army required a certain level of security, and the land grant was not only a reward for service, but also a necessary material condition for its implementation, since the knight acquired both a war horse and expensive heavy weapons (spear, sword, mace, armor, armor for the horse) at his own expense, not to mention the maintenance of the corresponding retinue. Knightly armor included up to 200 parts, and the total weight of military equipment reached 50 kg; Over time, their complexity and price increased. The system of knightly training and education served to prepare future warriors. In Western Europe, boys up to the age of 7 grew up in a family; later, until the age of 14, they were brought up at the court of a lord as a page, then as a squire, and finally a ceremony was held to knight them.

Tradition required the knight to be knowledgeable in matters of religion, know the rules of court etiquette, and master the “seven knightly virtues”: horse riding, fencing, skillful handling of a spear, swimming, hunting, playing checkers, writing and singing poetry in honor of the lady of the heart.

Knighting symbolized entry into a privileged class, familiarization with its rights and responsibilities, and was accompanied by a special ceremony. According to European custom, the knight initiating the title struck the initiator on the shoulder with the flat of his sword, pronounced the initiation formula, put on a helmet and golden spurs, presented a sword - a symbol of knightly dignity - and a shield with the image of a coat of arms and motto. The initiate, in turn, took an oath of allegiance and a commitment to uphold a code of honor. The ritual often ended with a knightly tournament (duel) - a demonstration of military skills and courage.

But the ideal was not always in agreement with reality. As for predatory campaigns in foreign lands (for example, the capture of Jerusalem or Constantinople during the Crusades), knightly “deeds” brought grief, ruin, reproach and shame to more than just the common people.

The Crusades contributed to the formation of ideas, customs, the morality of chivalry, and the interaction of Western and Eastern traditions. During their course, special organizations of Western European feudal lords arose in Palestine to protect and expand the possessions of the crusaders - spiritual knightly orders. These include the Johannite Order (1113), the Templar Order (1118), and the Teutonic Order (1128). Each order had its own distinctive clothing (for example, the Templars had a white cloak with a red cross). Organizationally, they were built on the basis of a strict hierarchy, headed by an elected master approved by the Pope. Under the master there was a chapter (council) with legislative functions.

Cathedral in a medieval city for a long time was the only public building. It played the role of not only a religious, ideological, cultural, educational center, but also an administrative and, to some extent, economic one. Later, town halls and covered markets appeared, and some of the functions of the cathedral passed to them, but even then it by no means remained only a religious center. The idea that “the main objectives of the city...served as the material basis and symbols of the conflicting social forces that dominated urban life: the castle-support of secular feudal power; the cathedral is the embodiment of the power of the clergy; the town hall is a stronghold of self-government for citizens” - only partly true. Their unconditional acceptance simplifies the socio-cultural life of the medieval city.

The medieval city was small and enclosed by walls. Residents perceived it holistically, as an ensemble, a feeling lost in the modern city. The cathedral defines the architectural and spatial center of the city; with any type of urban planning, the web of streets gravitated towards it. As the tallest building in the city, it served as a watchtower if necessary. Cathedral Square was the main one, and sometimes the only one. All vital public events took place or began in this square. Subsequently, when the market was moved from the suburbs to the city and a special market square appeared, one of its corners is often adjacent to the cathedral.

The cathedral appears to our admiring eyes in a completed and “purified” form. Around it there are no those small shops and benches that, like bird’s nests, clung to all the ledges and caused demands from the city and church authorities “not to punch holes in the walls of the temple.” The aesthetic inappropriateness of these shops, apparently, did not bother contemporaries at all; they became an integral part of the cathedral and did not interfere with its greatness.

The city cathedral has long served as a place for municipal meetings and was used for various public needs. True, monastery churches and the houses of city lords were used for the same purpose. The temple was always a ready and open refuge in days of grief, anxiety and doubt; it could also become a refuge in the literal sense, guaranteeing immunity for some time. The cathedral tried to accommodate everyone, but on especially solemn days there were too many applicants. And despite the strict etiquette of the medieval way of life, which for us has already become a frozen stereotype, there was a crush and not always a harmless crush in the cathedral. Contemporaries left evidence of riots during coronation ceremonies at Reims Cathedral.

Medieval costume was gradually divided into men's and women's (men wore trousers, women wore a kind of long dress over a shirt), and hierarchical differences also appeared. In the 12th century, feudal lords began to wear long dress, emphasizing the impossibility of physical labor. Ladies wore wide sleeves that reached the ground, attached to the dress with clasps. New expensive fabrics appeared, available only to the very rich - silk, and later furs and lace. In a clearly structured feudal society, clothing served as more than just protection from the cold or a sign of personal wealth - it meant belonging to a certain group, and everyone had to wear a suit , corresponding to its position. Fashion as such did not yet exist; styles changed once a century. Clothing was inherited and played a very important role in medieval society. A suit of a certain style and color was a symbol of a person’s social status and determined his belonging to a group - the university and guild corporation, city patriciate, monastic and knightly orders had their own clearly defined characteristics in clothing.

It was impossible to wear a suit that did not correspond to one’s status: for a crime, a member of a corporation (and everyone was one during this period) could be deprived of the right to wear a suit of this corporation. The feudal lords, striving for the exclusivity of their costume, also opposed the use of its elements in the clothing of representatives of other classes. Decrees of the kings of England, France and other European countries in the 13th and 14th centuries prohibited townspeople from wearing expensive furs and jewelry. City legislation also regulated clothing: for example, women's costumes and jewelry had to match the status of their husbands.

In knightly culture, the use of color symbolism in clothing was popular: the color was supposed to reflect not only the social status, but also the state of the wearer: hope, love, grief, joy, etc. The custom of wearing the colors of the lady of one’s heart was extremely popular.

Conclusion

The most important feature of European medieval culture is the special role of Christian doctrine and christian church. At the stage of late feudalism (XI-XII centuries), crafts, trade, and city life had a rather low level of development. The dominance of feudal lords - landowners - was undivided. The Crusades carried out at the end of this period were important. These campaigns contributed to the acquaintance of Western Europe with the rich culture of the Arab East and accelerated the growth of crafts. Royal power assumes significant importance. This process was facilitated by the elimination of feudal anarchy. The socio-political system that established itself in Europe in the Middle Ages is usually called feudalism in historical science. This word comes from the name of the land ownership that a representative of the ruling class received for military service. This possession was called a fief.

It can be said that no matter how barbaric the Middle Ages were, they cultivated a sense of duty, if only out of pride. No matter how limited the amount of knowledge of that time was, at least it taught first of all to think and only then to act; and then there was no ulcer of modern society - complacency. And the Middle Ages are considered naive.

Undoubtedly, the cathedral and church played a major role in determining the mentality of the residents. Along with the poverty of that time and the problems of crime, luxurious trips of nobles and knightly competitions were organized.

The courage and dexterity of the knights, the diversity of forms of everything that affected the mind and feelings, everyday life excited and kindled passion, which manifested itself either in unexpected explosions of crude unbridledness and brutal cruelty, or in outbursts of spiritual responsiveness, in the changeable atmosphere of which the life of the medieval city flowed. In a word, life retained the flavor of a fairy tale.

List of used literature

everyday life costume middle ages knighthood

1. Gurevich A.Ya. Kharitonov D.E. History of the Middle Ages. M.: Vlados, 2014. -336 p.

2.Ivanov K.A. The many faces of the Middle Ages. M.: Aletheya, 2014. - 432 p.

History of the Middle Ages. / Ed. N.F. Kolesnitsky. - M.: Education, 2014. - 575 p.

Yastrebitskaya A.P. Western Europe of the 11th-13th centuries: era, life, costume. M.: UNITY - DANA, 2013. - 319 p.

The Middle Ages... When we think about them, the walls of knightly castles and huge Gothic cathedrals grow before our mental gaze, we remember the crusades and strife, the fires of the Inquisition and feudal tournaments - the whole textbook set of signs of the era. But these are external signs, a kind of scenery against which people act. What are they? What was their way of seeing the world, what guided their behavior? If we try to restore the spiritual image of the people of the Middle Ages, the mental, cultural foundation by which they lived, it turns out that this time is almost completely absorbed by the thick shadow cast on it by classical antiquity, on the one hand, and the Renaissance, on the other. How many misconceptions and prejudices are associated with this era?

The concept of the “Middle Ages,” which arose several centuries ago to designate the period separating Greco-Roman antiquity from modern times, and from the very beginning carried a critical, pejorative assessment—a failure, a break in the cultural history of Europe—has not lost this content even in modern times. this day. When talking about backwardness, lack of culture, lack of rights, they resort to the expression “medieval”.

Medieval European culture covers the period from the fall of the Roman Empire to the active formation of the culture of the Renaissance and is divided into the culture of the early period (V-XI centuries) and the culture of the classical Middle Ages (XII-XIV centuries). The appearance of the term “Middle Ages” is associated with the activities of Italian humanists of the 15th-16th centuries, who, by introducing this term, sought to separate the culture of their era - the culture of the Renaissance - from the culture of previous eras. The Middle Ages brought with it new economic relations, a new type of political system, as well as global changes in people's worldview.

The entire culture of the early Middle Ages had a religious overtones. The basis of the medieval picture of the world was images and interpretations of the Bible. The starting point for explaining the world was the idea of ​​a complete and unconditional opposition between God and nature, Heaven and Earth, soul and body. The man of the Middle Ages imagined and understood the world as an arena of confrontation between good and evil, as a kind of hierarchical system, including God, angels, people, and otherworldly forces of darkness.

Along with the strong influence of the church, the consciousness of medieval man continued to remain deeply magical. This was facilitated by the very nature of medieval culture, filled with prayers, fairy tales, myths, and magic spells. In general, the cultural history of the Middle Ages is a history of the struggle between church and state. The position and role of art in this era were complex and contradictory, but nevertheless, throughout the entire period of development of European medieval culture, there was a search for the semantic support of the spiritual community of people.

All classes of medieval society recognized the spiritual leadership of the church, but, nevertheless, each of them developed its own special culture, in which it reflected its moods and ideals.

The purpose of the work is to study the era, life, and costume of Western Europe in the 11th-13th centuries.

1) study the development of the Middle Ages of the XI-XIII centuries;

2) consider life and costume in the XI-XIII centuries.