Parsons T. System of modern societies

The Renaissance dates back, according to some sources, to the 14th - 17th centuries. according to others - to the XV - XVIII centuries. The term Renaissance (Renaissance) was introduced to show that in this era the best values and ideals of antiquity were revived - architecture, sculpture, painting, philosophy, literature. But this term was interpreted very conditionally, since it is impossible to restore the entire past. This is not a revival of the past in its pure form - it is the creation of a new one using many of the spiritual and material values of antiquity.

The last period of the Renaissance is the era of the Reformation, completing this greatest progressive revolution in the development of European culture.

Beginning in Germany, the Reformation swept a number of European countries and led to the falling away from the Catholic Church in England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Finland, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and partly Germany. It is a broad religious and socio-political movement that began in the early 16th century in Germany and aimed at reforming the Christian religion.

The spiritual life of that time was determined by religion. But the church was unable to resist the challenge of the time. The Catholic Church had power over Western Europe and untold wealth, but found itself in a sad situation. Having emerged as a movement of the humiliated and enslaved, the poor and persecuted, Christianity became dominant in the Middle Ages. The undivided dominance of the Catholic Church in all spheres of life ultimately led to its internal degeneration and decay. Denunciations, intrigues, burning at the stake, etc. were carried out in the name of the teacher of love and mercy - Christ! By preaching humility and abstinence, the church grew obscenely rich. She profited from everything. The highest ranks of the Catholic Church lived in unheard of luxury, indulged in the revelry of a noisy social life, very far from the Christian ideal.

Germany became the birthplace of the Reformation. Its beginning is considered to be the events of 1517, when the doctor of theology Martin Luther (1483 - 1546) spoke with his 95 theses against the sale of indulgences. From that moment on, his long battle with the Catholic Church began. The Reformation quickly spread to Switzerland, the Netherlands, France, England, and Italy. In Germany, the Reformation was accompanied by the Peasants' War, which took place on such a scale that no social movement of the Middle Ages could compare with it. The Reformation found its new theorists in Switzerland, where its second largest center arose after Germany. There, the Reformation thought was finally formalized by John Calvin (1509 - 1564), who was nicknamed the "Pope of Geneva." Ultimately, the Reformation gave birth to a new direction in Christianity, which became the spiritual basis of Western civilization - Protestantism. Protestantism freed people from the pressure of religion in practical life. Religion became personal matter of a person. Religious consciousness was replaced by a secular worldview. Religious rituals were simplified. But the main achievement of the Reformation was the special role given to the individual in his individual communication with God. Deprived of the mediation of the church, man now had to be responsible for his actions, i.e. . much greater responsibility was assigned to him. Different historians resolve the issue of the relationship between the Renaissance and the Reformation in different ways. Both the Reformation and the Renaissance placed at the center the human personality, energetic, striving to transform the world, with a pronounced strong-willed principle. But the Reformation at the same time had a more disciplinary impact: it encouraged individualism, but placed it within the strict framework of morality based on religious values.

The Renaissance contributed to the emergence of an independent person with freedom of moral choice, independent and responsible in his judgments and actions. In the bearers of Protestant ideas expressed new type personalities with new culture and attitude towards the world.

The Reformation simplified, cheapened and democratized the church, placed inner personal faith above external manifestations of religiosity, and gave divine sanction to the norms of bourgeois morality.

The Church gradually lost its position as a “state within a state”; its influence on domestic and foreign policy decreased significantly, and later completely disappeared.

The teachings of Jan Hus influenced Martin Luther, who in the general understanding was not a philosopher or thinker. But he became a German reformer, moreover, the founder of German Protestantism.

In Europe in the XV-XVII centuries. There are qualitative changes in historical development, a “civilizational leap”, a transition to a new type of civilizational development, which is called “Western”.

The foundations of Western civilization were laid in antiquity and the Middle Ages. However, medieval European civilization was confined to the narrow confines of European territory. Its relations with the East and Russia were sporadic and limited, and were related mainly to trade. Attempts to break through to the East during the era of the Crusades of the 11th-13th centuries. ended in failure. The captured lands again moved into the orbit of Arab-Muslim civilization. In the XV-XVII centuries. Europe begins to explore the world's oceans. The Portuguese, Spaniards, and after them the Dutch, English and French rushed beyond the Old World in search of wealth, fame and the acquisition of new territories. Already in the middle of the 15th century. The Portuguese organized a series of expeditions along the coast of Africa. In 1460, their ships reached the Cape Verde Islands. In 1486, Bartolomeo's expedition circumnavigated the African continent from the south, passing the Cape of Good Hope. In 1492, Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic Ocean and, landing in the Bahamas, discovered America. In 1498, Vasco da Gama, having circumnavigated Africa, successfully led his ships to the shores of India. In 1519-1522. F. Magellan made the first trip around the world.

Simultaneously with the formation of a new structure in the economies of European countries there was a process of primitive accumulation of capital, the source of which was internal and international trade, robbery of colonies, usury, exploitation of the peasantry, small urban and rural artisans.

Technical progress, the deepening of the social division of labor, and the evolution of private property relations contributed to the development of commodity-money relations. Known at previous stages of the development of society and fulfilling a subordinate role under the dominance of natural economy, commodity-money relations in the XV-XVII centuries. develop into a market economic system. They penetrate into all spheres of the economy, go beyond local and national borders, and with the development of maritime shipping and great geographical discoveries, they create the basis for the formation of a world market.

Profound economic shifts have led to changes in social structure of society. The class barriers of traditional, feudal society began to crumble. A new social structure of society began to take shape. On the one hand, there is the bourgeoisie (who grew up from rich city dwellers-merchants, moneylenders, and partly guild masters) and the new nobles (landowners who came to use hired labor in agriculture, as well as engaged in trade and business activities), on the other hand, hired workers ( formed from bankrupt artisans and peasants who lost their land). All of them are free owners, but some own material assets that allow them to use hired labor, while others only have their own working hands. Differentiation in society is deepening, relations between social groups and classes are becoming aggravated.

A feature of Western European society was to ensure a certain equilibrium, a balance of social forces, first within the framework of a class monarchy and at first under absolutism. The central government in European countries had limited opportunities to interfere in socio-economic life due to the lack of a developed bureaucracy. The struggle between royal power, feudal lords, cities and peasantry led to a relative balance of power, the political form of which was an estate monarchy with elective institutions. But in the XVI-XVII centuries. There is a suppression of class representative bodies (Cortes in Spain, the States General in France), self-government of cities and the formation of absolutist monarchies. A bureaucratic and coercive apparatus was created to manage individual territories and sectors of the economy. A standing army was formed. All this made the central government the main political force.

At first, absolute monarchy in a number of European countries played a progressive role in consolidating the nation and helping to strengthen new features in the economy. In the struggle against the feudal aristocracy and for the unification of the country, the absolute monarchy relied on the emerging bourgeois class. She used the development of industry and trade to strengthen the army and generate additional income for the state treasury. At this stage, the bourgeoisie also needed strong state power. At the same time, royal power remained a form of power of the nobility, but under absolutism it could have some independence from the nobility and the bourgeoisie. Playing on the contradictions between the nobility and the bourgeoisie, absolutism kept them in balance. But this union could not be durable. When the intervention of a grown and strengthened bureaucracy in the economy begins to impede capitalist evolution, the bourgeoisie enters into a decisive struggle for power. The first bourgeois revolutions take place (in the Netherlands, England).

In parallel with geographical discoveries, colonial development of territories took place. At the beginning of the 16th century. The conquest of America (the Conquest) begins. Due to a lack of labor, blacks began to be imported en masse to America. Thus, thanks to the great geographical discoveries and colonial conquest of new territories the creation of an oceanic global civilization began. The boundaries of the world in this civilization have expanded dramatically. Social interaction: trade, political, cultural contacts ran across the oceans, connecting the continents.

This expansion of European civilization beyond Europe had a strong influence on inner life Europe itself. Shopping centers have moved. The Mediterranean began to lose its importance, giving way first to Holland and later to England. A revolution took place in people's worldview, and a new type of social relations began to form - capitalist relations.

Thanks to the great geographical discoveries, the traditional picture of the world has changed. These discoveries proved that the Earth is spherical. N. Copernicus, G. Bruno and G. Galileo scientifically substantiated the heliocentric idea of the structure of the cosmos. Due to intensive development scientific knowledge European rationalism receives a powerful impetus. The idea of the knowability of the world, the possibility of knowing the laws governing it, and science as the main productive force of society is affirmed in people's minds. Thus, one of the main value systems of Western civilization is formed, which affirms the special value of reason, the progress of science and technology.

In the economic sphere during this period there is a formation capitalist social relations. Western civilization of this type is called technogenic. The needs of production and the development of science stimulated technical progress. Manual labor began to be gradually replaced by machine labor. The use of water and windmills, the use of new technologies in shipbuilding, the improvement of firearms, the invention of the printing press, etc. led to an increase in labor productivity in industry and agriculture.

At the same time, important changes are taking place in the organizational structure of production. Craft production in the workshop structure is being replaced by manufactory, based on the internal division of labor. Manufactories were serviced with the help of hired labor. It was headed by an entrepreneur who owned the means of production and served the production process itself.

Agriculture was gradually drawn into capitalist social relations. In the countryside, there was a process of de-peasantization through the transition to renting, the creation of farms, etc. This process was especially noticeable in England, in connection with the development of the textile industry there (“enclosure”).

In the complex of factors that led to qualitative changes in European society and contributed to a new type of civilizational development, two phenomena in its culture played an important role: the Renaissance (Renaissance) and the Reformation.

The term “Renaissance” is used to designate a certain cultural and ideological movement that originated in Italy in the second half of the 14th century. and throughout the XV-XVI centuries. covered all European countries. Leading cultural figures of this time declared their desire to overcome the legacy of the Middle Ages and revive the values and ideals of antiquity. In the approved system of values, the ideas of humanism (Latin humanus - humane) come to the fore. Therefore, the figures of the Renaissance are often called humanists. Humanism is developing as a large ideological movement: it embraces cultural and artistic figures, includes merchants, bureaucrats and even the highest religious spheres - the papal office. On this ideological basis, a new secular intelligentsia is emerging. Its representatives organize circles, give lectures at universities, and act as the closest advisers to sovereigns. Humanists bring freedom of judgment, independence in relation to authorities, and a bold critical spirit to spiritual culture.

The worldview of the Renaissance can be described as anthropocentric. The central figure of the universe is not God, but man. God is the beginning of all things, and man is the center of the whole world. Society is not a product God's will, but the result of human activity. A person cannot be limited by anything in his activities and plans. He can handle everything. The Renaissance is characterized by a new level of human self-awareness: pride and self-affirmation, awareness of one’s own strength and talent, cheerfulness and free-thinking become the distinctive qualities of the progressive person of that time. Therefore, it was the Renaissance that gave the world a number of outstanding individuals with a bright temperament, comprehensive education, who stood out among people with their will, determination, enormous energy, in a word - “titans”.

The art of this era revives the ideal of man, the understanding of beauty as harmony and proportion. Planar, seemingly disembodied images of medieval art give way to three-dimensional, relief, convex space. There is a rehabilitation of the physical principle in a person. In literature, sculpture, and painting, a person is depicted with his earthly passions and desires. However, the carnal principle in the aesthetics of the Renaissance did not suppress the spiritual; writers and artists in their work sought to portray a personality in which physical and spiritual beauty merged together.

The anti-church orientation of artistic, philosophical and journalistic works of Renaissance figures is also characteristic. The most striking works of this genre are “The Decameron” by G. Boccaccio (1313-1375) and “In Praise of Folly” by Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536).

The Renaissance allowed Europeans to master the experience accumulated by ancient civilization, free themselves from the shackles of medieval values and ideals, and take a major step in the formation of new civilizational guidelines and values: 1) affirmation of dignity and respect for the human person; 2) individualism, orientation towards personal autonomy; 3) dynamism, orientation towards novelty; 4) tolerance for other views and ideological positions.

Also played a huge role in the history of European society Reformation- a broad socio-political and ideological movement of struggle against the Catholic Church, which covered in the 16th century. most countries in Western and Central Europe. By the beginning of the 16th century. Catholic Church became an influential international force that considered itself a stronghold of the existing system, a stronghold of the nascent national consolidation. This entailed increased claims by the Catholic Church, led by the pope, to establish its political hegemony and subordination to secular power.

In centralized countries, papal claims met with decisive rebuff from the royal authorities. It was more difficult for fragmented countries to protect themselves from the political intrigues and financial extortions of the papacy. This explains the fact that the reformation movement began first in fragmented Germany. The claims of the papacy were associated here with foreign dominion and aroused universal hatred of the Catholic Church. Another equally important reason for the reformation movement was the desire to reform the church, to make it “cheap.”

As a result of the Reformation, a new major movement in Christianity arose - Protestantism. Protestantism in Germany developed in two directions: moderate burghers, led by Martin Luther, and radical peasants, led by Thomas Münzer. The culmination of the German Reformation was the Peasants' War of 1524-1525. Its leader Thomas Munzer saw the main tasks of the Reformation in the implementation of a socio-political revolution, in the liberation of the people from exploitation and the satisfaction of their everyday needs. After the defeat of the radical peasant forces in the Great Peasant War, the struggle of political forces led to the formation of two groups of German principalities - Catholic and Protestant (in the Lutheran version). Prisoner in 1555 of Augsburg religious world, who proclaimed the principle “Whose power, his faith,” meant the extension of princely sovereignty to the area of religion, and consequently, the consolidation of German fragmentation.

In other European countries, the Reformation movement spread in the forms of Lutheranism, Zwinglianism, and also Calvinism. Thus, in the Netherlands, the bourgeois revolution took place under the banner of Calvinism, where it became the official religion. Calvinism (Huguenots) became widespread in France in the 40s and 50s. XVI century, and it was used not only by the burghers, but also by the feudal aristocracy in the fight against royal absolutism. The civil or religious wars that took place in France in the second half of the 16th century ended in the victory of royal absolutism. Official religion Catholicism remained. The so-called royal reformation took place in England. The Act of 1534 on supermacy (i.e., supremacy), according to which the king became the head of the church, summed up the conflict between English absolutism and the papacy. The Anglican Church established itself in the country, which became the state church, and the Anglican religion was forced. And although the English bourgeois revolution took place under the banner of Calvinism, the Puritans (as the followers of Calvinism were called) split into several movements and by the end of the 17th century. state church remained Anglican.

The Reformation destroyed ideas about the inviolability of the spiritual power of the church, about its role as a mediator between God and man. The main innovation introduced into the confession of Christianity by M. Luther, T. Münzer and J. Calvin is the assertion that Only direct personal relationships are possible between man and God. And this means that all church hierarchy for the work of saving his soul, there is no need for priests - monks as intermediaries between man and God; there is no need for monastic orders and monasteries in which enormous wealth was concentrated. A person can be saved (“go to Heaven”) only by personal faith in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. Deprived of the mediation of the church, man himself now had to answer before God for his actions.

Protestantism asserts; that salvation can come to a person not as a result of church rituals or “good deeds” of a person. Salvation is a gift of divine grace. And God predestined some people to salvation, others to destruction. Nobody knows their fate. But you can indirectly guess about it. Such indirect “hints” are that God gave this person faith, as well as success in business, which is considered as an indicator of favor towards to this person God.

A believer is called God for the salvation of man. The Protestant interpretation of the term “vocation” contains such a meaning that all forms of human life are ways of serving God. It follows from this that a person must work honestly, devote all his strength not to ascetic exercises aimed at mortifying the flesh, but to concrete deeds for the better organization of this world. Protestantism, having rejected the doctrine of the saving role of the church, significantly simplified and cheapened religious activities. Divine services are reduced mainly to prayer, preaching psalms, hymns and reading the Bible.

From the middle of the 16th century. In Europe, the Catholic Church managed to organize opposition to the Reformation. The counter-reformation unfolded, which led to the suppression of Protestantism in part of Germany, Poland. Attempts at reformation in Italy and Spain were suppressed. However, Protestantism established itself in a large part of Europe. Under his influence, a new type of personality was formed, with a new system of values, with a new work ethic, with a new, cheaper organization of religious life. And this, undoubtedly, contributed to the development of bourgeois social relations.

The combination of all these factors determined the transition of a number of European countries from a traditional society based on a subsistence economy, with static social formations and dominance religious worldview to a new type of economy, a new social structure of society, new forms of ideology and culture that had no analogues in the previous history of mankind.

Lecture. Renaissance culture and the Reformation.

Plan

Humanism and church-reformation ideology.

Common features and differences between the Renaissance and Reformation.

Cultural and historical dominant of the Protestant Reformation.

Literature

Gorfunkel A.Kh. Humanism - Reformation - Counter-Reformation: Sat. Art. //Culture of the Renaissance and Reformation/ Rep. Ed. R.I. Khlodovsky. M.: Nauka, 1981. pp. 7-18 (A544399).

Stam S.M. Humanism and Church Reformation Ideology // Ibid. P.29-39.

Retrov M.T. On the criteria for comparing the Renaissance and the Reformation // Ibid. pp. 40-48.

The question of the relationship between the Renaissance and the Reformation has been worrying everyone who turns their scientific attention to this era for many centuries.

The problems of studying the essence of the Renaissance and Reformation are focused, as it were, on two clarifications, specification general, i.e., what connects, brings these two concepts together and specification, clarification of what they are divides, opposes them to each other.

In some European countries the Renaissance developed for a long time without the Reformation (Italy), in others the Renaissance was very a short time was unaccompanied by the reform movement (England, France), in third countries the Renaissance and Reformation coincided chronologically (Scandinavia).

First of all, let us clarify the essence of such a phenomenon for medieval culture as the humanistic Renaissance. During the Renaissance, humanism emerged as an advanced, progressive ideology that asserted the right to independent existence and the development of secular culture. The core of humanistic culture is anthropocentrism, the formed doctrine of man, of human freedom, of the possibility of realizing the creative abilities of man - the “second God”, in a world open to his activity, full of earthly pleasures.

The ideology of humanism contributed to spiritual emancipation and all-round personal development. The main stream, trend in this ideology was individualizing humanism. And this individualistically oriented ideology gave rise to the greatest ideological, artistic, and scientific achievements that have far outlived their era.

This individualistic ideology helped for the first time to look at history, at the political struggle, at the state with human eyes, i.e., to wrest social knowledge from the power of theology.

The Reformation is a religious movement not anything opposed to Catholicism. Among the opposition, one should name Lutheranism and Calvinism, which formed into independent Reformation churches.

By Counter-Reformation we understand the activity, or more precisely, the Catholic reaction, led by the Jesuit Order, organized after the Council of Trent, with the goal of restoring the inviolability and spiritual power, the monopoly of the Catholic Church.

The Council of Trent of 1545-1563 played a huge role in the consolidation of the Catholic Church. If the Inquisition and censorship were aimed at suppressing the Reformation and eradicating its ideas, as well as secular freethinking, then the council aimed not only to condemn the Protestant heresy, but also to take measures to strengthen the Catholic Church. The bull promulgated by the pope outlined the following tasks of the council: a clear definition of the Catholic faith and reform of the church. The main goal was the systematization and unification of Catholic teaching. The need for this was caused by the speeches of Protestant reformers seeking to shake traditional foundations. Pope Paul III considered the dogmatic and organizational consolidation of the church under papal supremacy to be fundamental to reform and the fight against Protestants.

The work of the cathedral, which began in 1543 in the small city of Trento (lat. Trident), bordering Italy and Germany, continued for 18 years with long interruptions, until decisions were finally made. First of all, the inviolability of hierarchy, traditions and church sacraments was pointed out. The function of the church as an intermediary in achieving salvation was especially emphasized. Everything that the Protestants wanted to overthrow was confirmed and consolidated.

The Council rejected the basic postulate of the Protestant reformers, according to which the Bible alone is the source of faith, and confirmed that Sacred Tradition is also a source of faith. He confirmed the primacy of the pope in the church, the status of the clergy, celibacy, the mass, the sacrament of confession, the veneration of saints and the veneration of relics.

A comparison of the Renaissance and the Reformation can be made in three main plans.

1. First of all, they are compared as two "contacting"» phenomena of European history among themselves. In this aspect, the Renaissance and Reformation appear not so much as eras (in some countries it is difficult to draw a dividing line between the Reformation and the Renaissance), but as specific historical and cultural processes, in all the complexity of their manifestations and relationships.

It is important to emphasize that at its beginning, the reformation (reformations) “deal” with, rely on the developed, and sometimes inclined to decline, Renaissance tradition. The Renaissance precedes the reformations and is supplanted by them, although it was humanism that cleared the way for the reformers and its ideological and cultural heritage became the basis of the reformation processes. But, during the era of the Reformation, a fundamentally different understanding and application of the main results of the Renaissance took place.

2. Second long shot comparison of the Renaissance and Reformation is their historical-genetic analysis. That is, a comparison of those foundations - historical, historical and cultural traditions from which they grew genetically.

Both the Renaissance and the Reformation were characterized by the ideas of “return”, “renewal”, “restoration”. Both there and there consciously turn to historical precedents. But the question arises about the content of innovation and innovation. What did the Renaissance “reform” in its intent to “revive,” and what did the Reformation attempt to “revive” in its intent to “reform”?

Both the Renaissance and the Reformation are connected by the desire to restore distorted ancient values. The idea of "return" was associated with a decisive denial of many existing traditions. But that's where the similarities end. The scale and object of denial are different among humanists and reformers. The Renaissance, being a generally secular movement, was carried out within the framework Christian Catholic principles, i.e. without breaking with Catholicism. Unlike the Renaissance, the Reformation from its inception was clearly opposed to Catholicism in its entire range - from dogma and rituals to church organization and religious life. The Reformation and Renaissance “restored” different historical traditions.

3. Third plan- this is a comparison or juxtaposition of the Renaissance and the Reformations as historical and cultural systems realized in all spheres of society - from the highest areas of spiritual activity to political practice and everyday realities.

The Renaissance and the Reformation are differently organized systems. The Renaissance is complete; the interrelation of its various sides and elements is devoid of rigidity, it is organic. The Renaissance is an open system, ready to take on a lot and accept a lot. The Reformation as a movement is very fragmented (doctrines, heresies, teachings, etc.)

Reformations from the moment of their construction are difficult to penetrate, since most of them are associated with a rigid system of prescriptions.

The Renaissance and Reformation are oriented towards different goals, the mechanism of their expansion and spread is different.

Now we will try to compare in more detail some substantive aspects of the two systems.

The contrast between the two ideological systems is obvious. Humanism called man from the ghost of otherworldly bliss to an active and joyful creative life on earth; religious reformation teachings subordinated man to the supreme authority of God and demanded unconditional submission to the letter scripture. It is not without reason that many humanists, who initially welcomed the Reformation, then indignantly turned away from it as a new scholasticism and fanaticism.

Humanists were convinced of the omnipotence of the human mind, on the contrary, the reformers were inspired the idea of the omnipotence of faith. Reason was allowed as an auxiliary means, faith was placed immeasurably higher. “Let no one think that he can comprehend faith by reason... What Christ says is the truth, whether I or any man can understand it,” Luther wrote. In his essay Against the Heavenly Prophets, Luther called reason the devil's harlot, which only disgraces and defiles everything that God says and does.

Humanists, promoting a secular, human culture imbued with reason, were inspired by ancient wisdom. Luther was indignant that the universities “are ruled not so much by Christ as by the blind pagan teacher Aristotle” and advised that all the most important works of the Stagirite be withdrawn from teaching. In his youth, Calvin sometimes spoke highly of the sages of antiquity and even quoted Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero, but even then he placed their works immeasurably lower than the Holy Scriptures. Later, rejecting everything non-Christian, he argued: “Everything that seems worthy of praise among the pagans is worth nothing.” He accused the humanists of having “always arrogantly despised the Gospel.”

Humanists criticized scholasticism from rationalistic positions, and reformers from mystical ones. The Reformers could allow reason in practical life, but not in theology. Humanism rejected scholasticism, as well as theology.

The cornerstone of the humanistic worldview was the belief in the exceptional merits of man as a natural being, in the inexhaustible wealth of his physical and moral powers. Humanists hated the asceticism of religious morality.

On the contrary, Luther proceeded from the “radical and general depravity of human nature”: “... there is nothing pure or good in us, but we ourselves and what we have are all drowning in sin...” (Luther). Calvin called man a “contemptible creature.” Luther allowed marriage only as a necessity; he considered celibacy as an ideal. “Is there a man in the world who would not prefer to live as a virgin and without a wife, if he could?”

Humanism convinced that the human will is capable of resisting the external forces of fate, and a person is able to free himself from fear. The belief in the naturalness of pleasure and joy debunked the imaginary holiness of suffering. Luther convinced that faith comes from fear and requires fear: “As soon as a person hears the name of God, he is filled with reverent fear, trembling, horror.”

The ethical result of such an interpretation of the world and man was The main religious imperative is submission. Contrary to the assertions of the clerics, it was not religion (old or renewed), but precisely humanism that contained the impulse for real moral perfection, the formation of man as a spiritually sovereign individual. The dominant feature of the new worldview was the idea of a person whose high dignity was determined not by nobility of origin or wealth, but only by personal valor, nobility in deeds and thoughts.

From all of the above, a logical question arises: why did the ideology of the Reformation, based on the depravity of man, his inability to control his own destiny, and not the Renaissance, become the banner of the anti-feudal struggle of the masses?

First of all, all reformation movements rejected the old, feudal Catholic Church, and in the eyes of the people it was the main source of vice, with the elimination of which, it seemed, all evil would collapse. The idea of justification of sin by faith gave hope for salvation by God's grace. The benefits promised by religion seemed available to everyone.

Humanistic ideology (especially at the initial stage of its formation) was still an attribute of elite culture(Latin, political, pedagogical activity). It is no coincidence that humanistic ideas in some countries came from the aristocratic elite of the court.

Humanism believed in the attainability of perfection and harmony of humanity through the harmonious improvement of the individual. He was interested in the individual, but not the masses. He generally remained indifferent to the mass actions. It is not surprising that it could not take shape organizationally (Academies, clubs, communities, etc.) do not count. He was unable to create cohesive, militant organizations like the Calvinist consistories. Humanism has not been able to completely overcome the primacy of the theological worldview. The Renaissance intelligentsia wanted to rule over the minds of people, reformers always tried to add power over the people themselves. The Reformation and especially the Counter-Reformation called to life a type of figure fundamentally different from the Renaissance figure (creator). The concept of truth is conceptualized in different ways. The point here is not the degree of conviction, but the very nature of the convictions. The Renaissance orator is opposed by the type of preacher; the type of freely philosophizing commentator is opposed by the type of codifier and doctrinaire.

The Truth of Humanism – Comprehensively developed person, but this is too many-sided truth. Therefore, humanists were not ready not to kill or die for beauty and elegant literature. Reformers, basically, were ready to kill and die for the idea. Humanists often became reformers themselves. But not a single reformer left the camp of supporters of his idea.

The Reformation was a religious reaction to the Renaissance, a denial of its secular worldview, in its main orientation - humanism.

Analysis of the characteristics and forms of the concept "Culture". The main aspect of the contradiction between mass and elite culture. The influence of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation on the features of the Northern Renaissance. Restructuring of scientific thinking and great geographical discoveries.

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