Philosophical thought in ancient Rome. The Essence of Ancient Roman Philosophy Ready-made works on a similar topic
ROMAN PHILOSOPHY
From the beginning of the III century BC. e. in the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome is significantly increased, which from an urban republic becomes a strong power. In the II century. BC e. he already owns a large part ancient world. The cities of mainland Greece also fall under its economic and political influence. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture, an integral part of which was philosophy, begins in Rome. Roman culture and education developed under completely different conditions than those that had been several centuries earlier in Greece. Roman campaigns, directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the area of mature civilizations of the ancient world, and on the other hand, on the territory of "barbarian" tribes), form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking. The natural and technical sciences developed successfully, and the political and legal sciences reached unprecedented proportions.
Roman culture is characterized by the desire to enrich itself with the best of what Rome faces, striving for world domination. Therefore, it is logical that Roman philosophy is also formed under the decisive influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking. II century BC).
Approximately since that time, three philosophical trends have been developing in Rome, which were already formed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism.
Stoicism. Stoicism was most widespread both in republican and later in imperial Rome. Sometimes it is considered the only philosophical direction that acquired a new sound in the Roman period. Its beginnings can already be seen in the influence of Diogenes of Seleucia and Antipater of Tarsus (who arrived in Rome with the Athenian embassy mentioned). A notable role in the development of Stoicism in Rome was also played by representatives of the Middle Stoa Panetios from Rhodes and Posidonius, who worked in Rome for a relatively long period. Their merit lies in the fact that they contributed to the widespread dissemination of Stoicism in the middle and upper classes of Roman society. Among the students of Panetius were such outstanding personalities of Ancient Rome as Scipio the Younger and Cicero.
Panetius, in the main provisions of his teaching, largely adhered to the old Stoicism. So, he has the concept of logos, similar to the concept, for example, in Chrysippus, who adhered to similar ontological views. In the field of ethics, he somewhat brought the ideal of the Stoic sage closer to practical life.
Posidonius had a great influence on the further development of Roman Stoicism. In the field of ontology, he develops the main philosophical problems of the teachings of Aristotle, as well as issues bordering on the natural sciences and cosmology. He connects the original philosophical and ethical views of Greek Stoicism with elements of the teachings of Plato, and in some cases with Pythagorean mysticism. (This shows a certain eclecticism that was typical of Roman philosophy of that period.)
The most prominent representatives of Roman stoicism (new standing) were Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.
Seneca (c. 4 BC - 65 AD) came from the class of "horsemen", received a comprehensive natural science, legal and philosophical education, and successfully practiced as a lawyer for a relatively long period. Later he becomes the tutor of the future emperor Nero, after whose accession to the throne he receives the highest social status and honors. In the second year of Nero's reign, he dedicates to him the treatise "On Mercy", in which he urges Nero, as a ruler, to maintain moderation and adhere to the republican spirit.
As prestige and wealth grows, Seneca comes into conflict with his surroundings. After a fire in 64 AD. e. hatred for Seneca in Rome is growing. He leaves the city and lives on his nearby estate. Accused of preparing a conspiracy, he was forced to commit suicide.
The legacy of Seneca is very extensive. His most outstanding works include "Letters to Lucilius", "Discourse on Providence", "On the Fortitude of the Philosopher", "On Anger", "On a Happy Life", "On Free Time", "On Virtue", etc. With the exception of "Questions of Nature" ("Quastiones naturales"), all his works are devoted to ethical problems. If the old standing considered physics to be the soul, then the philosophy of the new standing considers it a completely subordinate area.
In his views on nature (as well as in the rest of his work), Seneca, however, in principle adheres to the teachings of the old stand. This is manifested, for example, in the materialistically oriented dualism of matter and form. Mind is considered to be the active principle that gives form to matter. This clearly recognizes the primacy of matter. He also understands the soul (pneuma) in the spirit of old Stoicism, as a very subtle matter, a mixture of the elements of fire and air.
In epistemology, Seneca, like other representatives of Stoicism, is a supporter of ancient sensationalism. He emphasizes that reason has its origin in feelings. When deciding on the activity of the soul, however, he accepts some elements of Platonic philosophy, which is manifested primarily in the recognition of the immortality of the soul and the characterization of corporality as the "fetters" of the soul.
Seneca proceeds from the fact that everything in the world and in the universe is subject to the power of strict necessity. This follows from his conception of God as an immanent, ruling force that dominates the mind (logos). Seneca characterizes it as "the highest good and the highest wisdom", which is realized in the harmony of the world and its expedient arrangement.
Unlike the old stoicism, Seneca (as well as all Roman stoicism) almost does not deal with logical problems. The center and focus of his system is ethics. The principle of harmony with nature stands out as the main one (to live happily means to live in accordance with nature) and the principle of man's subordination to fate. The question of how to live life is devoted to his treatises “On the brevity of life” and “On a happy life”. They are projected as personal experience Seneca, and the social attitudes of the then Rome. The loss of civil liberties and the decline of the republican virtues in the era of imperial power lead him to considerable doubts about the future. Life is divided into three periods: past, present and future. Of these, the one in which we live is short; the one in which we will live is doubtful, and only the one in which we have lived is certain. Only he is stable, fate does not affect him, but no one can return him either. Seneca rejects the desire for the accumulation of property, for secular honors and positions: “The higher one ascends, the closer he is to the fall. Very poor and very short is the life of that person who, with great effort, acquires what he must retain with even greater effort. However, he used his social position and became one of the richest and most influential people in Rome. When his enemies pointed out the fact that his own life differed very sharply from the ideals that he proclaims, he answered them in the treatise “On a Happy Life”: “... all philosophers do not talk about how they themselves live, but about how must live. I speak about virtue, but not about myself, and I fight against sins, and that means against my own: when I overcome them, I will live as I should.”
Seneca sees the meaning of life in achieving the absolute peace of mind. One of the main prerequisites for this is to overcome the fear of death. He devotes a lot of space to this issue in his writings. In ethics, he continues the old line, emphasizing the concept of man as an individual striving for perfection in the virtues.
A life in which a person devotes all or the vast majority of his efforts to his own improvement, a life in which he avoids participation in public affairs and political activity, is, according to Seneca, the most worthy. “It is better to seek shelter in a quiet harbor than to be voluntarily thrown back and forth all your life. Think how many waves you have already been exposed to, how many storms have swept through your private life, how many of them you have unconsciously called upon yourself in public life! I do not mean that you drown your days in sleep and pleasure. This is not what I call a fulfilling life. Strive to find tasks that are more important than those that you have done so far, and believe that it is more important to know the score. own life than the common good you've cared about so far! If you live like this, fellowship with wise men, fine art, love and accomplishment of good awaits you;
knowing how to live well and one day die well.” His ethical views are imbued with individualism, which is a reaction to the turbulent political life in Rome.
Another prominent representative of Roman stoicism - Epictetus (50-138) was originally a slave. After he was released, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy. In his views there is much from the old stand, which influenced him, and from the work of Seneca. He left no work himself. His thoughts were recorded by his student Arrian from Nicomedia in the treatises "Epictetus' Reasoning" and "Epictetus' Guide". Epictetus defended the point of view according to which philosophy, in fact, is not only knowledge, but also application in practical life. He was not an original thinker, his merit mainly lies in the popularization of Stoic philosophy.
In his ontological ideas and in his views in the field of the theory of knowledge, he proceeded from Greek stoicism. The works of Chrysippus had an exceptional influence on him. The core of the philosophy of Epictetus is ethics based on the Stoic understanding of virtue and life in accordance with general character peace.
The study of nature (physics) is important and useful not because nature (the surrounding world) can be changed on its basis, but because, in accordance with nature, a person can streamline his life. A person should not desire what he cannot master: “If If you want your children, your wife and your friends to live permanently, then you are either crazy, or you want things that are not in your power to be in your power and that what is alien to be yours. And since it is not in the power of man to change the objective world, society, one should not even strive for this.
Epictetus criticizes and condemns the then social order. He emphasizes the idea of the equality of people, condemns slavery. In this way his views differ from the Stoic teachings. The central motif of his philosophy - resignation to the given reality - leads, however, to passivity. "Don't wish everything to happen the way you want, but wish everything to happen the way it happens, and you will be fine in life."
Epictetus considers reason to be the real essence of man. Thanks to him, man participates in the general order of the world. Therefore, one should not care about well-being, comforts, and bodily pleasures in general, but only about one’s soul.
Just as reason rules over a person, so the world mind - logos (God) rules in the world. He is the source and determining factor in the development of the world. Things, as controlled by God, should obey him. Freedom and independence, to which he attached great importance. Epictetus limits only spiritual freedom, the freedom of humility with reality.
The ethics of Epictetus are essentially rationalistic. And although it is expressively marked by subjectivism, it still protects (unlike the irrationalist currents that were being formed at that time) the power of the human mind.
In essence, the whole philosophy of Epictetus is an expression of the passive protest of the lower social classes against the existing social order. This protest, however, finds no real outlet. Therefore, it results in a call to come to terms with the existing state of affairs.
The emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) also belongs to the Roman Stoics, during whose reign the crisis phenomena become even more intense. The upper social classes refuse to change anything in order to preserve the existing social order. In Stoic ethics they see a certain means moral revival society. The emperor, in his reflections "To himself", proclaims that "the only thing that is in the power of man is his thoughts." "Look into your gut! There, inside, there is a source of goodness, which is able to beat without drying up, if you constantly dig into it. He understands the world as eternally current and changeable. The main goal of human aspirations should be the achievement of virtue, that is, the obedience to "reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature." Marcus Aurelius recommends: “Calm thought with everything that comes from outside, and justice with everything that is realized at your own discretion, that is, your desire and action, let them be in actions that are generally useful, for this is in accordance with your nature.”
Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient Stoicism, and in fact this is where Stoicism ends. In his work, certain traces of mysticism appear, which is closely associated with the decline of Roman society. largely influenced the formation of early Christianity.
Epicureanism The only materialistic (for its time, distinctly materialistic) philosophy in ancient Rome was Epicureanism, which spread considerably in the last years of the Roman Republic and early imperial rule. Its most prominent representative was Titus Lucretius Carus (c. 95-55 BC), who wrote the philosophical poem "On Nature", which is also a valuable work of art in contemporary literature.
Lucretius fully identifies his views with the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus; the latter he considered the best Greek philosopher. In his work, he skillfully explains, proves and propagates the views of the early representatives of the atomistic doctrine, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism both from earlier and contemporary opponents, giving at the same time the most complete and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Democritus and Epicurus. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only thing that exists.
Matter, first of all, is the primary bodies of things,
secondly, everything that is the totality of the named elements.
No force, however, can destroy atoms,
they always win with their impenetrability.
The first is deeply different, double character
have those two things, as said above,
matter and space, everything happens in it;
they are necessary in themselves and pure.
Where does the emptiness, the so-called space, extend,
there is no matter; and where the matter is stretched,
there is no emptiness and space in no way.
The first bodies are full without emptiness.
Secondly, in the things that have arisen, there is a void,
next to it is solid matter.
In this form, Lucretius expounds the doctrine of Democritus and Epicurus about atoms and emptiness, emphasizing at the same time the uncreability of matter as such.
If the first bodies are solid
and without cavities, as I have already said,
they are certainly eternal.
With the indestructibility and increability of matter, i.e., with its infinity in time, the infinity of matter in space is also connected.
The universe itself cannot limit itself;
truth is the law of nature; he wishes that the limits of matter
formed a void, and matter - the boundaries of the void,
the merit of this alternation is the universe without end.
Atoms, according to Lucretius, are inherent in motion. In solving the problem of movement, he stands on the principles of Epicurus. He tries in a certain way to justify deviations from the rectilinear motion of atoms.
Here's what you should know about movement:
if atoms fall vertically in space due to
its own weight, here in an indefinite place
and indefinitely they deviate from the path
just enough so that the direction is slightly different.
If this deviation did not exist, everything would fall into
depths of emptiness, down like raindrops,
elements could not collide and connect,
and nature would never have created anything.
From this it follows that the Epicurean parenclitic movement for Lucretius is the source of particles. Together with the size and shape of atoms, it is the cause of the diversity and variety of things in the world.
He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the whole body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.
What matter is the spirit and what does it consist of,
my words will shortly enumerate it for you.
First of all, I say that the spirit is extremely subtle;
the bodies that form it are extremely small.
It helps to understand and you will understand that:
nothing happens in the world so fast
as something that thought itself represents and forms.
From this it can be seen that the spirit has the highest speed,
than all that is available to the eye;
but what is also mobile, it is true that it consists of bodies
perfectly round and tiny.
In a similar way, he defends atomistic views in the field of the theory of knowledge, which he also developed in many directions.
In Lucretius's understanding of the atomistic theory one can already meet the outlines of evolutionism. He held the view that everything organic arose from the inorganic and that complex organic species developed from the simplest.
Lucretius tries to explain in a natural way the emergence of society. He says that originally people lived in a "semi-savage state", not knowing fire and dwelling. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd is gradually turning into society. Naturally, he could not come to a materialistic understanding of the causes of the emergence and development of human society. His desire for a "natural" explanation was limited by both social and epistemological parameters. However, despite this, his views on society were, in particular, compared with the then idealistic approach, significant progress. Like Epicurus, he believed that society, social organization (law, laws) arise as a product of mutual agreement of people (contract theory):
Neighbors then began to unite in friendship,
No longer wanting to repair lawlessness and enmity,
and the children and the female sex were taken under protection,
showing gestures and awkward sounds,
that all should have sympathy for the weak.
Although consent could not be universally accepted,
the best and most part of the contract was sacredly fulfilled.
The materialism of Lucretius also has its atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes the gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes any belief in gods. He criticizes the concept of life after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises in a completely natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes. In particular, he points to the epistemological origins of the emergence religious beliefs(The disclosure of the social roots of religion was, of course, impossible in his time).
In the field of ethics, Lucretius consistently defends the Epicurean principles of a calm and happy life. Knowledge is the means to happiness. In order for a person to live happily, he must be free from fear, in particular from fear of the gods. These views he defended both from Stoic and skeptical criticism, and from their vulgarization in the understanding of some supporters of Epicureanism from the highest circles of society.
The impact and spread of the consistently materialistic and logically integral philosophical system of Lucretius, undoubtedly, was facilitated by the artistic form of presentation. The poem "On Nature" belongs not only to the heights of Roman philosophical thinking, but also to the highly artistic works of its period.
Epicureanism remained in Roman society for a comparatively long time. Even in the era of Aurelian, the Epicurean school was among the most influential philosophical trends. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity becomes official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle begins against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which eventually led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.
Roman epicureanism, in particular the work of Lucretius Cara, marked the pinnacle of materialistic tendencies in Roman philosophy. He became an intermediate link between the materialism of the ancient Greek Stoics and the materialistic currents of the philosophy of modern times.
Skepticism. Another significant philosophical trend in ancient Rome was skepticism. Its main representative, Aenesidemus of Knossos (ca. 1st century BC), is close in his views to the philosophy of Pyrrho. The influence that Greek skepticism had on the formation of Aenesidemus' thoughts is evidenced by the fact that he devoted his main work to the interpretation of the teachings of Pyrrho ("Eight Books of Pyrrho's Reasonings").
Aenesidemus saw in skepticism a way to overcome the dogmatism of all existing philosophical trends. He paid much attention to the analysis of contradictions in the teachings of other philosophers. The conclusion of his skeptical views is that it is impossible to make any judgments about reality based on direct sensations. To substantiate this conclusion, he uses the formulations of the so-called tropes, which have already been mentioned.
The following five tropes, which were added by the successor of Aenesidemus Agrippa, further increased doubts about the correctness of the ideas of other philosophical trends.
The most prominent representative of the so-called junior skepticism was Sextus Empiricus. His teaching also comes from Greek skepticism. This is evidenced by the title of one of his works - "Fundamentals of Pyrrhonism". In other works - "Against Dogmatists", "Against Mathematicians" - he sets out a methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of the then knowledge. Critical assessment is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, etc. The question of the existence of gods did not escape his skeptical approach, which led him to atheism.
In his works, he seeks to prove that skepticism is an original philosophy that does not allow confusion with other philosophical trends. Sextus Empiricus shows that skepticism differs from all other philosophical currents, each of which recognizes certain essences and excludes others, in that it simultaneously questions and admits all essences.
Roman skepticism was a specific expression of the progressive crisis of Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is precisely in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of things, on the whole it is already a philosophy that has lost that spiritual power that elevated ancient thinking to its heights. In essence, skepticism contains more outright rejection than methodological criticism.
Eclecticism. Significantly more widespread and important than in Hellenistic Greece is eclecticism in Rome. Its supporters include a number of prominent personalities of Roman political and cultural life, both in the last years of the Roman Republic and in the first period of the empire. The most famous among them was the outstanding politician and orator Mark Thulius Cicero (106-45 BC), the creator of Latin philosophical terminology.
Representatives of Roman eclecticism possessed a colossal amount of knowledge. In a number of cases they were genuine encyclopedists of their era. Their combination of different philosophical schools was not accidental and unfounded, a certain conceptual approach was strengthened precisely by a deep knowledge of individual views. The gradual convergence of theory with the field of ethics expressed the general situation in philosophy.
Eclecticism, developing on the basis of academic philosophy, reaches the boundaries of encyclopedism, covering the knowledge of both nature and society. Cicero belonged to, perhaps, the most significant direction of Roman eclecticism, which developed on the basis of Stoic philosophy.
"Stoic" eclecticism in the presentation of Cicero focuses on social issues, and in particular on ethics. His motive was to combine those parts of various philosophical systems that bring useful knowledge.
The social views of Cicero reflect his position as a representative of the upper strata of Roman society during the Republic. He sees the best social structure in a combination of three basic state forms: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He considers the goal of the state to provide citizens with security and free use of property. His theoretical views were largely influenced by his actual political activities.
In ethics, he largely adopts the views of the Stoics, pays considerable attention to the problems of virtue set forth by the Stoics. He considers man to be a rational being, which has something divine in itself. Virtue refers to the overcoming of all life's adversities by willpower. Philosophy renders invaluable services to man in this matter. Each of the philosophical directions comes to the achievement of virtue in its own way. Therefore, Cicero recommends "combining" everything that is the contribution of individual philosophical schools, all their achievements into one whole. By this, in fact, he defends his eclecticism.
Neoplatonism. The progressive crisis of Roman society in the last years of the republic and in the first years of the empire is naturally reflected in philosophy. Distrust of the rational development of the world, to a greater or lesser extent manifested in various philosophical directions, together with the growing influence of Christianity, more and more strengthened the multiplying signs of mysticism. The irrational currents of this era tried in various ways to adapt to the changing role of philosophy. Neo-Pythagorean philosophy, of which Apollonius of Tkana was a typical representative, tried to strengthen itself by returning to the mysticism of numbers, bordering on charlatanism; the philosophy of Philo of Alexandria (30s BC-AD 50) sought to combine Greek philosophy with the Jewish religion. In both concepts, mysticism appears in a concentrated form.
More interesting was Neoplatonism, which develops in the III-V centuries AD. e.; during the last century of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical direction that arose in the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism is formed in the same social setting as Christianity. Like other irrationalist philosophical trends of late antiquity, Neoplatonism to a certain extent is a manifestation of the rejection of the rationalism of previous philosophical thinking. It is a specific reflection of the social hopelessness and progressive decay of the social relations on which the Roman Empire was based. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and the most prominent representative of Plotinus (205-270).
Plotinus believed that the basis of everything that exists is a supersensible, supernatural, overreasonable divine principle. All forms of life depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says of it that it is unknowable. “This being is and remains God, does not exist outside of it, but is precisely its very identity.” This only true being is comprehensible only by penetrating into the very center of pure contemplation to pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the "rejection" of thought-ecstasy (extasis). Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this only true being. Nature, according to Plotinus, is created in such a way that the divine principle (light) penetrates matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existence from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation stands the divine principle, then the divine soul, and below all, nature.
Simplifying somewhat, we can say that the divine principle of Plotinus is an absolutization and some deformation of the world of Plato's ideas. Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. It is for him a certain transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external in relation to them. Such an understanding of the soul distinguishes the views of Plotinus from the views not only of the Epicureans, but also of the Greek and Roman Stoics. According to Plotinus, the soul is not organically connected with the body. It is part of the common soul. The corporeal is the tether of the soul, worthy only of overcoming. “Plotinus, as it were, pushes aside the bodily, sensual and is not interested in explaining its existence, but only wants to cleanse it from it, so that the universal soul and our soul do not suffer damage.” The emphasis on the "spiritual" (good) leads him to the complete suppression of all bodily and material (evil). This results in the preaching of asceticism. When Plotinus speaks of the material and sensible world, he characterizes it as an inauthentic being, as a non-existent, "having in itself a certain image of the existent." By its nature, an inauthentic being has no form, properties, or any signs whatsoever. This solution of the main philosophical problems in Plotinus is also marked by his ethics. The principle of good is connected with the only truly existing - with the divine mind, or soul. On the contrary, the opposite of good - evil is associated and identified with inauthentic being, that is, with the sensible world. From these positions, Plotinus also proceeds to the problems of the theory of knowledge. For him, the only true knowledge is the knowledge of true being, i.e., the divine principle. The latter, of course, cannot be comprehended by sensory cognition, nor is it cognizable by rational means. The only way to approach the divine principle Plotinus considers (as already mentioned) ecstasy, which is achieved only by spiritual effort - mental concentration and suppression of everything bodily.
The philosophy of Plotinus specifically expresses the hopelessness and insolubility of contradictions, which become all-encompassing. This is the most expressive harbinger of the end of ancient culture.
Porphyry (c. 232-304) became a direct student of Plotinus and a successor of his teachings. He showed great attention to the study of the works of Plotinus, published and commented on them, compiled a biography of Plotinus. Porfiry was also engaged in the study of problems of logic, as evidenced by his "Introduction to the categories of Aristotle", which marked the beginning of the dispute about real existence general.
The mystical teaching of Plotinus is continued by two other Neoplatonic schools. One of them is the Syrian school, the founder and the most prominent representative which was Iamblichus (late 3rd - early 4th century AD). From the surviving part of his large creative heritage, it can be judged that, in addition to the traditional range of problems of Neoplatonic philosophy, he was also occupied with other problems, such as mathematics, astronomy, music theory, etc.
In philosophy, he develops the thoughts of Plotinus concerning the divine principle, mind and soul. Among these Plotinian essences, he also distinguishes others, transitional ones.
Noteworthy is his attempt, in the spirit of Plotinus's philosophy, to substantiate ancient polytheism. Simultaneously with the divine principle as the only truly existing, he recognizes a number of other deities (12 heavenly gods, the number of which he then increases to 36 and further to 360; then come 72 earthly gods and 42 gods of nature). This is essentially a mystical-speculative attempt to preserve the ancient image of the world in the face of the coming Christianity.
Another school of Neoplatonism - Athenian - is represented by Proclus (412-485). His work in a certain sense is the completion and systematization of Neoplatonic philosophy. He fully accepts the philosophy of Plotinus, but in addition publishes and interprets Plato's dialogues, in the comments to which he expresses original observations and conclusions.
It should be noted that Proclus gives the clearest explanation and exposition of the principle of the dialectical triad, in which he distinguishes three main points of development:
2. Distinguishing what has already been created from what is creative.
3. The return of the created to the creator.
The conceptual dialectic of ancient Neoplatonism is marked by mysticism, which reaches its apex in this concept.
Both Neoplatonic schools deepen and systematically develop the basic ideas of Plotinus' mysticism. This philosophy, with its irrationalism, aversion to everything bodily, emphasis on asceticism and the doctrine of ecstasy, had a significant impact not only on the early Christian philosophy but also on medieval theological thinking.
We traced the origin and development of ancient philosophy. In it, for the first time, almost all the main philosophical problems crystallized, the basic ideas about the subject of philosophy were formed, and, although not explicitly, the problem that F. Engels formulated as the main question of philosophy was posed. In ancient philosophical systems, philosophical materialism and idealism were already expressed, which largely influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. V. I. Lenin stated that the history of philosophy has always been an arena of struggle between two main trends - materialism and idealism. The directness and, in a certain sense, the straightforwardness of the philosophical thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to realize and more easily understand the essence of the most important problems that accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day. In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, in a much clearer form than it happens later, ideological clashes and struggle are projected.
The initial unity of philosophy and the expanding special scientific knowledge, their systemic separation very clearly explain the relationship between philosophy and special (private) sciences.
Philosophy permeates the entire spiritual life of ancient society; it was an integral factor in ancient culture. The richness of ancient philosophical thinking, the formulation of problems and their solution were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.
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Group OPI - 13
Student Kozhevnikov A.O.
Teacher Rukoleeva R.T.
Ekaterinburg
Introduction. 3
Philosophy of ancient Rome. 4
Stoicism. 4
Skepticism. 8
The ideal of the Roman citizen. 9
Conclusion. 12
For notes. 13
References.. 14
Introduction
Ancient Rome - these words are associated with military and economic power, strict laws, the art of politicians, masterpieces of literature and monumental construction.
The Romans left behind many books about their empire and the lives of their citizens. Ancient Roman authors showed the world as they saw it, bringing personal feelings and ideas into their work.
Roman culture and education developed under completely different conditions than those that had been several centuries earlier in Greece. Roman campaigns directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the area of mature civilizations, and on the other hand, on the territory of “barbarian” tribes) form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking.
Successfully developed natural, technical, medical, political and legal sciences, which became the basis of the modern world.
The history of Rome continues to be interesting and important also because it is a lesson learned by modern leaders and philosophers. From the history of Rome, we learn about many personal qualities worthy of emulation, as well as examples of actions and attitudes that people would like to avoid.
Philosophy of ancient Rome
From the beginning of the III century BC. in the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome is significantly increased, which from an urban republic becomes a strong power. In the II century BC. he already owns most of the ancient world. In 146 BC. cities of continental Greece fall under the influence of Rome. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture, an integral part of which was philosophy, begins in Rome. Therefore, Roman philosophy is formed under the influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking of three schools - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism.
Stoicism
During the Roman Empire, the teachings of the Stoics turned into a kind of religion for the people, and the entire empire. Sometimes it is considered the only philosophical direction that acquired a new sound in the Roman period.
Its beginnings can already be seen in the influence of Deogenes and Antipater, who arrived in Rome with an Athenian embassy. A famous role in the development of Stoicism in Rome was played by Panepius and Posidonius, who worked in Rome for a relatively long period. Their merit lies in the fact that they contributed to the widespread dissemination of Stoicism in the middle and upper classes of Roman society. The most prominent representation of Roman Stoicism was Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius.
Seneca comes from the estate of "horsemen", received a natural science, legal and philosophical education, a relatively long period was engaged in the practice of law. Later he becomes the tutor of the future Emperor Nero. Epictetus was originally a slave. After he was released, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy. Marcus Aurelius - the Roman emperor from the Antonin dynasty - the last representative of ancient stoicism.
At the end of the 4th century BC. in Greece, stoicism is formed, which becomes one of the most common philosophical movements. Its founder was Zeno. In Athens, he became acquainted with post-Socratic philosophy and in 300 BC. founded his own school.
Zeno was the first to proclaim about the treatise "On Human Nature" that the main goal is "to live in accordance with nature, and this is the same as to live in accordance with virtue." In this way, he gave Stoic philosophy the main orientation. From Zeno also comes an effort to combine the three parts of philosophy (logic, physics and ethics) into one whole system. Their comparison of philosophy with an orchard is well known: logic corresponds to the fence that protects it, physics is a growing tree, and ethics is the fruit.
The Stoics characterized philosophy as "an exercise in wisdom." The instrument of philosophy, its main part, they considered logic. It teaches to handle concepts, form judgments and conclusions. Without it, neither physics nor ethics can be understood.
The basis of knowledge, according to their views, is sensory perception, which is caused by specific, single things. The general exists only through the singular.
The center and bearer of knowledge, according to Stoic philosophy, is the soul. It is understood as something bodily, material. Sometimes it is referred to as pneuma (combination of air and fire). Its central part, in which the ability to think is localized, is called reason by the Stoics. Reason connects a person with the whole world. The individual mind is part of the world mind.
The Stoics recognize two basic principles: the material principle (material), which is considered the main one, and the spiritual principle - the logos (God), which penetrates all matter and forms specific single things. Just as the mind rules over a person, so in the world the world mind is the logos (God). He is the source and determining factor in the development of the world. Things, as controlled by God, should obey him. Things and events are repeated after each periodic ignition and purification of the cosmos.
Stoic philosophy puts virtue at the pinnacle of human effort. Virtue, according to them, is the only good. In the understanding of the Stoics, "virtue can be a simple completion of anything, mental or physical." Virtue means to live in harmony with reason.
The Stoics recognize four basic virtues: rationality, moderation, justice, and valor. Four opposites are added to the four basic virtues: rationality - unreasonableness, moderation - debauchery, justice - injustice, and valor - cowardice. There is a clear distinction between good and evil, between virtue and sin.
Everything else is classified by the Stoics as indifferent things. Man cannot influence things, but he can "rise" above them. In this position, the moment of "resignation to fate" is manifested. Man must obey the cosmic order, he must not desire what is not in his power.
“If you want your children, your wife and your friends to live permanently, then you are either crazy, or you want things that are not in your power to be in your power and that what is alien is yours. Do not wish everything to happen as you want, but wish everything to happen as it happens, and everything will be fine for you in life.
The ideal of Stoic aspirations is peace, or at least impassive patience. The meaning of life is to achieve absolute peace of mind. A life in which a person devotes all or the vast majority of his efforts to his own improvement, a life in which he avoids participation in public affairs and political activity, is the most worthy.
“I just want to warn you about one thing: do not act like those who do not want to improve, but only to be seen, and do not make anything conspicuous in your clothes or lifestyle. Avoid appearing untidy, with an unshaven head and an unshaven beard, flaunting a hatred of silver, making a bed on bare ground - in a word, everything that is done for the sake of the perverted satisfaction of one's own vanity. After all, the very name of philosophy causes enough hatred, even if you live contrary to human customs. Let us be different from the inside in everything - from the outside we should not be different from people.
It is Stoic philosophy that most adequately reflects "its time". This is the philosophy of "conscious refusal", conscious resignation to fate. It diverts attention from the outside world, from society to inner world person. Only within himself can a person find the main and only support.
"Look into your gut! There, inside, there is a source of goodness, which is able to beat without drying up, if you constantly dig into it. ”
Marcus Aurelius
Skepticism
At the end of the 4th century BC. in Greek philosophy, another philosophical direction, less common than the previous ones, is being formed - stoicism. Its founder was Pyrrho.
In the Hellenistic era, its principles were formed, for skepticism was determined not by methodological guidelines in the impossibility of further knowledge, but by the rejection of the opportunity to reach the truth. Skepticism denied the truth of any knowledge. And this refusal becomes the basis of the teaching.
The achievement of happiness, according to Pyrrho, means the achievement of ataraxia (equanimity, composure, calmness). This state of affairs is the result of answering three questions. First: "What are things made of?" It is impossible to answer because no thing is "it is more than another." Second: "How should we feel about these things?" On the basis of the previous answer, the only dignified attitude towards things was considered to be "refraining from any judgment." Third: "What use do we get from this attitude towards things?" If we refrain from all judgment of things, then we will achieve a stable and unruffled peace. It is in this that skeptics see the highest degree of possible bliss.
The chief representative of skepticism in Rome was Sextus Empiricus. He outlines the methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of the then knowledge. Critical appraisal is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar and many other sciences. His skeptical approach did not escape the question of the existence of gods, which led him to atheism. In essence, skepticism contains more outright rejection than methodological criticism.
Roman skepticism was a specific expression of the progressive Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of value, on the whole it is already a philosophy that has lost that spiritual power that elevated ancient thinking to its heights.
Much has already been said about the Hellenic philosophers, whose power is undeniable. The contribution of the nearby ancient Romans is no less significant. Representatives of different cultures contradicted each other, but at the same time they constituted a single philosophical array of the ancient European period, which became the foundation for the development of modern society. According to its basic principles, the philosophy of ancient Rome became an amazingly logical legal system. She, being the successor of ancient Greek teachings, hewn an uncut "Hellenic diamond", gave it practical significance.
Virtues are the basis of teaching
When the Greek state fell, Hellenic stoicism, as a direction that promotes conscious self-control over weaknesses, inclinations, and submission to common sense, received its further development in the Roman stoic teaching.
The most prominent stoic of the Roman philosophical thought consider Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC - 65 AD). The young man was born in the middle class, received a good education.
Seneca followed strict temperance laws. But, despite the ascetic views, Lucius made a successful political career, was known as an orator, poet, writer.
The reasoning of the Stoic had a patriotic essence in many respects - he talked about the Motherland, a foreign land, came to the conclusion that there is no foreign land, all of it is native. Seneca often wondered about public life - a personal duty to the state and to himself. This reasoning is devoted to his treatise "On the brevity of life."
As a grown man, Lucius was given the great honor of being the tutor of the future Roman emperor-tyrant Nero, who was known for his particular cruelty. Especially for him, the Stoic wrote a treatise "On Benefits", which called for listening to one's own conscience. Seneca said "that knowledge of kindness is not enough, you still need to be able to do good." But the teacher did not manage to defeat the evil inclination of the pupil. Nero forced Lucius to commit suicide.
The philosophy of teaching spread to noble circles. Emperor Marcus Aurelius is considered the last Stoic of ancient Stoicism. For the then slave-owning Rome, it was extremely important that at such a high state level (in the person of Emperor Aurelius), the makings of democracy appeared.
Classifying the virtues, the Stoics divided them into two groups.
Personal virtues: mercy, honor, purposefulness, friendliness, culture, thoughtfulness. As well as thrift, diligence, wisdom, health, endurance, honesty.
Public virtues: wealth, justice, mercy, prosperity, trust, luck. Also - joy, fun, freedom, nobility. And patience, generosity, faith in God, security, manliness, fertility, hope.
Stoicism as a school of humility, moderation
The direction of Stoicism became so close for the ancient Roman, Greek citizens that philosophical thought continued to develop it until the end of the ancient period.
Epictetus was an outstanding follower of the Stoic school. By origin, the thinker was a slave, which was reflected in his philosophical views. Epictetus proposed to abolish slavery, to equalize all people. He believed that people are equal by birth, castes were invented to support future generations of noble families. A person must independently achieve respect, and not inherit it. Especially not to inherit the absence of any rights. Such an ideology was not characteristic of the philosophy of Ancient Greece.
Epictetus considered the philosophy of equality, humility and moderation a way of life, even a science, with the help of which a person acquires self-control, does not pursue the achievement of worldly pleasures, and is fearless before death. The Stoic reduced the meaning of his reasoning to the contentment of what is, and not to the desire for more. This lifestyle will never lead to disappointment. Briefly, Epictetus called his life motto apathy or obedience to God. Humility, acceptance of fate as it is, is the highest spiritual freedom.
Skepticism of ancient Roman philosophers
Skepticism is a phenomenal manifestation of philosophical thought. It is characteristic of the sages of both the Greek and Roman ancient world, which once again proves the interweaving of two opposing philosophies of that era. The similarity is especially clearly manifested in the period of late antiquity, when there is a social, political decline, the collapse of great civilizations.
The main idea of skepticism is the denial of any statements, final dogmas, rejection of theories of other philosophical movements. Adepts argued that the disciplines are contradictory, self-exclude themselves, each other. Only the teaching of skeptics has an original feature - it simultaneously accepts other opinions and doubts them.
Ancient Rome is known for such skeptics: Aenesidemus, Agrippa, Empiric.
Epicureanism - the way of adaptation to the world
The philosophical concept of ethics again unites two rival camps - the Greeks, the Romans.
Initially, the Hellenistic thinker Epicurus (342-270 BC) founded a philosophical direction, the purpose of which was to achieve a happy, carefree life without sorrows. Epicurus taught not to modify reality, but to adapt to it. To do this, the philosopher developed three necessary principles:
- Ethical - with the help of ethics, a person achieves happiness.
- Physical - with the help of physics, a person comprehends the natural world, which allows him not to feel fear of him. He helps the first principle.
- Canonical - with the help of the methodology of scientific knowledge, the implementation of the first principles of Epicureanism is available.
Epicurus believed that for the organization of a happy one needs not the unimpeded manifestation of knowledge, but their implementation in practice, but within pre-fixed boundaries.
Paradoxically, the ancient Roman thinker Lucretius became a figurative follower of Epicurus. He was radical in his statements, which simultaneously aroused the delight and anger of his contemporaries. Discussing with opponents (especially skeptics), the Epicurean relied on science, proving the importance of its existence: “If there is no science, then every day we observe the rise of a new sun. But we know it's only one." He criticized Plato's theory of the transmigration of souls: "If a person dies someday anyway, it doesn't matter where his soul goes." Lucretius was puzzled by the emergence of civilizations: “At first, mankind was wild, everything changed with the advent of fire. The formation of society can be attributed to the period when people learned to negotiate with each other.
Lucretius became a representative of the Hellenism of Epicurus, criticizing the perverted mores of the Romans.
Rhetoric of Ancient Rome
The brightest orator ancient roman philosophy was Marcus Tullius Cicero. He considered rhetoric to be the basis of the thought process. The doer wanted to "make friends" of the Roman thirst for virtue with Greek skillful philosophizing. Being a born orator, an active politician, Mark called for the creation of a just state.
Cicero believed that it is available by mixing the only three correct forms of government: monarchy, democracy, aristocracy. Compliance with a mixed constitution will ensure the so-called "great equality" by the sage.
It was Cicero who introduced society to the concept of "humanitus", which means "humanity, humanity, philosophy common sense". The thinker said that the concept is based on moral norms, capable of making every person a full member of society.
His knowledge in the scientific field is so great that Mark was recognized as the encyclopedic philosopher of antiquity.
The opinion of the philosopher about ethics, morality was as follows: “Every science comprehends virtue in its own extraordinary way. According to this, every educated person should get acquainted with various methods of cognition, test them. Any everyday problems are solved by willpower.
Philosophical and religious currents
Ancient Roman traditional philosophers actively continued their activities in antiquity. The teachings of Plato were very popular. But the philosophical and religious schools became a newfangled trend of that time, a connecting bridge between the West and the East. The teachings asked a global question about the relationship, opposition of matter and spirit.
An interesting trend was neo-Pythagoreanism, whose representatives philosophized about the inconsistency of the world, the unity of God. The Neo-Pythagoreans studied numbers from the mystical side, created a whole doctrine of the magic of numbers. Apollonius of Tyana became an outstanding follower of this philosophical school.
Intellectual personalities clung to the teachings of Philo of Alexandria. The main idea of the sage was to merge Platonism with Judaism. Philo explained that Jehovah created the Logos, which then created the world.
Religious worldviews were distinguished by primitive superstitious polytheism, where every phenomenon had a double.
The cult of vestal priestesses, chaste guardians of the state, was highly respected.
After the subjugation of Greece to Rome in the II century. BC e. the teachings that appeared in Ancient Greece in the era of the collapse of the Athenian state, such as Epicureanism, Stoicism, and skepticism, are transferred to the ancient Roman soil. Over the course of five centuries, ancient Roman authors explained in detail and developed concepts that were often preserved only in fragments from the ancient Greek period, giving them the artistic completeness and practicality of the Roman soul.
The Romans, unlike the Greeks, were very active, and the contemplative nature of Greek philosophy disgusted them. “After all, all the merit of valor lies in activity,” Cicero drops this phrase as a matter of course.
The practical orientation of the Roman soul led to the fact that in ancient Rome they were interested not in dialectics and metaphysics, but mainly in ethics. The closest Greek philosopher to the Roman Empire, Epicurus, gained fame in ancient Rome, and he found followers. His views were very close to the political situation of ancient Rome during the collapse of the republic.
Lucretius
The popularity of Epicurus was promoted by the poem “On the Nature of Things” by Lucretius Cara (c. 99 - c. 55 BC) (Lucretius is a name, Car is a nickname), a native of Rome, who lived in the era of civil war between supporters of Sulla and Maria and uprisings Spartacus. Lucretius was not a theoretician, but a poet; even more of an Epicurean than a poet, because he himself claimed that he undertook to present the views of Epicurus in poetic form to facilitate their perception, following the principle that the main thing is pleasure, as, say, a patient is given bitter medicine along with honey, so that it would not be unpleasant to drink .
Lucretius explained many of the views of Epicurus, whose works have survived only in fragments. He wrote about atoms, which must have a different nature than visible things, and not be destroyed, so that something new constantly arises from them. Atoms are invisible, like the wind and the smallest dust particles, but things, people and even gods are formed from them (as from the letters of a word).
Nothing can come from nothing by the will of the gods. Everything comes from something and turns into something due to natural causes. In fact, all changes occur in the world from the movement of atoms, which is random, mechanical in nature and imperceptible to people.
Lucretius paints a grandiose picture of the evolution of the world as a process that proceeds without the participation of any supernatural forces. Life, in his opinion, arose by spontaneous generation from inanimate nature. The properties of all things depend on the characteristics of the atoms of which they are composed, and they also determine our sensations, with the help of which a person cognizes the world around us. Soul and spirit are also material and mortal.
The social life of people is the result of their initial free contract among themselves. The gods do not interfere in the lives of people, as evidenced by the existence of evil and the fact that punishment can befall the innocent, and the guilty remain intact.
Can't you see
That only nature cries out for one thing, and that only demands,
So that the body does not know suffering, but the thought enjoys
Feeling pleasant away from the consciousness of care and fear?
We thus see what corporeal nature needs
Only a little: that suffering removes everything.
Those who in life took the true mind as their helm,
He always possesses the wealth of moderate life;
His spirit is serene, and he lives, being content with little.
In such very precise words, Lucretius conveys the essence of the teachings of Epicurus.
Epicureanism is more suitable for free people who can climb into an ivory tower. And the slave? How can he live unnoticed and without fear to enjoy life? Every person in the era of the empire was under the heel of a tyrant. Under these conditions, the teaching of Epicurus loses its vitality, no longer fits the social circumstances of the Roman Empire, when a person is forced to confront the authorities.
STOICS
The views of the Roman Stoics differed from the Greek in tonality - the strength of their feelings and the expressiveness of poetry - and this was due to a change in social conditions. Gradually, the dignity of people was undermined and at the same time their confidence. The psychological margin of safety was exhausted, and the motives of doom began to prevail. B. Russell wrote that in bad times philosophers invent consolations. “We cannot be happy, but we can be good; let's imagine that as long as we are kind, it doesn't matter if we are unhappy. This doctrine is heroic and useful in a bad world.”
Among the Roman Stoics, the leading features are not pride, dignity, self-confidence and inner steadfastness, but rather weak b awn, feeling of insignificance, confusion, brokenness. Nor do they have the optimism of the Greeks. The concepts of evil and death come to the fore. The Roman Stoics demonstrate the steadfastness of despair and patience, through which the motive of spiritual freedom breaks through.
A famous Roman propagandist of Stoicism was Cicero (106 - 43 BC). They explained the basic Stoic concepts. "But the first task of justice is not to harm anyone, unless you are called to do so against the law." To live in harmony with nature means “to be always in harmony with virtue, and to choose everything else that corresponds to nature only if it does not contradict virtue” (i.e. wealth, health, etc.). More, however, Cicero is known as an orator.
SENECA
A Spaniard by origin, Seneca was born in Rome. From 48 AD e. he is the tutor of the future emperor Nero, from whom he accepted death. The works of Seneca are as difficult to parse as a fictional novel. Retelling does not seem to reveal anything new, but if you start reading, you fall under the charm of style. This is an author for all times and peoples, and if there are several books that everyone should read in their lives, this list includes Seneca's Moral Letters to Lucilius. Reading them is useful and delivers inexplicable spiritual pleasure.
From an aesthetic and moral point of view, the works of Seneca are impeccable. Even in Plato, highly artistic parts of the text are interspersed with quite ordinary ones. In Seneca, everything is carefully finished and combined into one whole, although we are dealing with a series of letters, apparently really written to the addressee at different times. The unity of the work gives the integrity of the author's worldview. The moral preaching of Seneca does not sin with edification, cheap slogans, but subtly leads and convinces. We see in the author a combination of pride, valor, nobility and mercy, which we do not find either in Christian missionaries, who are distinguished by a different set of virtues, or in the philosophers of modern times.
In the work of Seneca, the motive of suffering prevails, and confidence in the possibility of getting rid of them goes out, leaving hope only for oneself. “We are not able to change ... the order of things, but we are able to gain greatness of spirit, worthy of a good man, and steadfastly endure all the vicissitudes of the case without arguing with nature.” Outside of himself, man is powerless, but he can be master of himself. Look for support in your own soul, which is God in man, Seneca advises.
Seneca contrasts external pressure with individual moral self-improvement and the struggle, first of all, with one's own vices. “I didn’t judge anything but myself. And why do you come to me in the hope of benefit. Anyone who expects to find help here is mistaken. Not a doctor, but a patient lives here.”
To gain independence from the despotic forces in the power of which a person is, Seneca proposes to become indifferent to fate, not to follow, like cattle, the leaders of the herd and views that find many followers; but live as required by reason and duty, i.e. by nature. "To live happily and to live according to nature are one and the same." “What is freedom, you ask? Do not be a slave to circumstances, or to inevitability, or to chance; bring fortune down one step with yourself; and as soon as I realize that I can do more than she, she will be powerless over me.
Understanding slavery in the broadest sense and fighting against it, thereby reflecting the growing anti-slavery sentiment and bringing the death of the slave system closer, Seneca believes that every person is potentially free, in a soul that cannot be given into slavery.
Seneca's morality is distinguished by mercy, philanthropy, compassion, pity, reverent attitude towards other people, benevolence, gentleness. In an all-powerful empire, the life of a philosopher is not safe, and this was fully experienced by Seneca, who was accused by his former student Nero of plotting against him. Although no evidence was found, Seneca, without waiting for arrest, opened his veins, remaining faithful to his views. It is not so important whether Seneca participated in the conspiracy against Nero or not. The very fact that he took part in state affairs indicates that he was preparing his own death. He is guilty of only one.
Seneca is the pinnacle of the moral and philosophical thought of mankind. He managed to synthesize everything of value that was in ancient ethics, not excluding the teachings of the opponent of the Stoics, Epicurus. He could agree that absolute truth is impossible, but for him this question is not important, but the question “how to live?”. This question cannot be saved by paradoxes, it must be solved here and now.
Seneca combined the fate of the three great ancient Greek philosophers. He was the educator of the future emperor, like Aristotle (although, unlike him, he believed that a virtuous person could be happy even under torture); wrote as artistically as Plato, and died, like Socrates, in the conviction that, according to the establishment of nature, "it is more unfortunate to bring evil than to suffer."
EPICTETUS
The first thing the student needed was to realize his own weakness and impotence, which Epictetus called the beginning of philosophy. The Stoics, following the Cynics, believed that philosophy is medicine for the soul, but in order for a person to want to take medicine, he must understand that he is sick. "If you want to be good, first be imbued with the conviction that you are bad."
The first stage of philosophical education is the rejection of false knowledge. Having begun to study philosophy, a person experiences a state of shock, when, under the influence of true knowledge, he seems to go crazy, abandoning his usual ideas. After that, new knowledge becomes the feeling and will of a person.
Three things are necessary, according to Epictetus, to become virtuous: theoretical knowledge, internal self-improvement, practical exercises (“moral gymnastics”). Daily self-examination, constant attention to yourself, your thoughts, feelings and actions are required; vigilant observation of oneself, as worst enemy. It is necessary to get rid of passions gradually, but consistently. You are used to being angry every day, try to be angry every other day, and so on.
The two basic principles of Epictetus are: "Withstand and refrain." Steadfastly withstand all the external difficulties that fall upon you, and whatever happens, take it easy. “Only one road leads to freedom: contempt for what does not depend on us”2. Refrain from any manifestation of your own passions, remembering that yours is only the mind and soul, but not the body. “Take my body, my property, my honor, my family - but no one can have my thoughts and willtake away, nothing can suppress them. "And you, although you are not yet Socrates, must, however, live like a man who wishes to become Socrates."
We also find in Epictetus the “golden rule of ethics”: “The position that you cannot tolerate, do not create for others. If you do not want to be a slave, do not tolerate slavery around you.
MARC AURELIUS
Shaky became not only the position of the individual, especially the slave, but also the empire. It was time for her decline. This is not the pessimism of a slave or a courtier, but the pessimism of an emperor and, therefore, an empire. Marcus Aurelius had all the power, all the "bread and circuses", but they did not please him. Strange as it may seem, it is during the period of the maximum power of the empire that a person inside it feels most unprotected and insignificant, crushed and helpless. The stronger the state, the weaker the individual. And not only a slave or a courtier, but an unlimited ruler himself.
An important place in the philosophy of Marcus Aurelius is occupied by the requirement to always be the same in response to the influence of external circumstances, which means constant proportionality, internal consistency of the mental disposition and all life. “To be like a cliff against which a wave is constantly beating; he stands, and the heated wave subsides around him.
We meet similar thoughts in Seneca. “Trust me, it's a great thing to always play the same role. But no one but the sage does this; all others are many-sided. The lack of integrity and wholeness is the reason that people, entangled in the change of masks, are split. And integrity is needed, because the person himself is a part of the world whole, without which he cannot exist, like an arm or a leg separately from the rest of the body. The idea of the unity of everything in the universe is constantly repeated by Marcus Aurelius.
That was the only case in world history when a state was ruled by a philosopher and the visible social pinnacle of the triumph of philosophy was reached. It would seem that it was Marcus Aurelius who would try to create a state on those philosophical principles that were developed in philosophy, starting with Socrates and Plato. But Marcus Aurelius not only did not start cardinal transformations (although as an emperor he had every opportunity for this - not like Plato), but did not even turn to people with philosophical sermons that had become fashionable at that time, but only kept a diary - for myself, not for publication. This is an extreme degree of disappointment in the possibility of improving the situation. One of Plato's desires for a philosopher to rule the state came true, but Marcus Aurelius understood how difficult, if not hopeless, it was to try to fix people and social relations. In the self-belittling of Socrates there was irony, in the self-belittling of Seneca and Marcus Aurelius there was genuine grief.
Teaching people how to live former slave Epictetus, the philosopher on the throne Marcus Aurelius, the statesman and writer Seneca, comparable in artistic skill only to Plato, and closer to us than Plato in the poignancy of his writings, are the most significant names of Roman stoicism.
All three were united by the conviction that there is a reasonable need for submission to the universal higher principle, and only the mind, and not the body, should be considered one's own. The difference is that, according to Seneca, outside world everything is subject to fate; according to Epictetus - the will of the gods; according to Marcus Aurelius - the world mind.
The similarity between the Roman Stoics and the Epicureans, as well as between the Greeks, consisted in the orientation towards life by nature, isolation and self-sufficiency, serenity and dispassion, in the idea of the materiality of the gods and the soul, the mortality of man and his return to the world whole. But the understanding of nature by the Epicureans as the material Universe remained, and by the Stoics - as the mind; justice as a social contract - by the Epicureans and as a duty to the whole world - by the Stoics; recognition of free will by the Epicureans and higher order and predestination by the Stoics; the idea of the linearity of the development of the world among the Epicureans and the cyclical development of the Stoics; orientation towards personal friendship among the Epicureans and participation in public affairs among the Stoics. For the Stoics, the source of happiness is reason, and the main concept is virtue; for the Epicureans, feeling and pleasure, respectively.
SEXTES EMPIRICUS
Fragments of works remained from ancient Greek skeptics. Sextus Empiricus (end of the 2nd - beginning of the 3rd century AD) gave a complete teaching with a detailed criticism of representatives of other directions. He did the same generalizing work that Lucretius did with Epicurus.
In the idea of the relativity of good and evil, Sextus finds his advantages. The rejection of the notion of the common good makes a person more resistant to public opinion, but in the absence of the main individual goal that subjugates all others, a person in the hustle and bustle of circumstances loses self-confidence and gets tired of fulfilling small goals that often contradict each other and deprive life of meaning. The skeptic himself, as a philosopher, must regard wisdom as a blessing.
Sextus gives an exhaustive summary of skeptical conclusions and teachings. We find in him logical paradoxes like "I am a liar", indicating that thinking, in principle, cannot be strictly logical and avoid contradictions. "I'm a liar," the man declares. If so, then his statement cannot be true, i.e. he is not a liar. If he does not lie, then his words are true, and, therefore, he is a liar.
We meet with Sextus paradoxes associated with qualitative changes in things, for example, the “grain and heap” paradox attributed to the philosopher of the Megarian school Eubulides from Miletus (4th century BC): “If one grain does not make a heap, and two do not make heaps, and three, etc., then there will never be a heap. Here we can say about the lack of understanding of what is obvious to modern science - the emergence of new properties in more complex things. Denying them, Sextus proves that if a part does not have any property (the letter does not denote a thing), then the whole (word) does not have this property either. Sextus can be corrected according to modern science, but the cornerstones of skepticism remain.
Diogenes Laertes considered skepticism to be a direction penetrating all ancient philosophy. The ancient Greeks paid great attention to logical difficulties, because for them rational arguments were of the greatest importance, and paradoxes were attracted by the possibility of resolving them, which sometimes turned out to be unsuccessful.
However, if everything is denied, then it is impossible to talk about anything. This forces one to make positive assertions. If I don't know if I know something, then maybe I do know something? Consistent skepticism opens the way to faith.
It is the merit of the skeptics to try to determine the limits of rational thinking in order to find out what can and cannot be expected from philosophy. Dissatisfied with the framework in which the mind functions, they turned to religion. Undermining the authority of reason, the skeptics thus prepared the offensive of Christianity, for which faith is higher than reason. Despite the efforts of Epicurus and the Stoics, it turned out that the fear of death could not be overcome by reasonable arguments. The spread of Christianity was caused by the entire logic of the development of ancient culture. People want happiness not only here, but also after death. Neither Epicurus nor the Stoics nor the Skeptics promised this. Faced with a dilemma: reason or faith, people rejected reason and preferred faith, in this case Christian. Turning away from rational wisdom, a younger and more self-confident Christianity defeated ancient philosophy. The latter reposed like a wise old man giving way to a new generation.
From the end of the 2nd century Christianity takes over the minds of many people. We can say that Christianity defeated the most powerful empire in the history of mankind, and the only emperor-philosopher Marcus Aurelius in history suffered a crushing spiritual defeat. Why did this happen? The weakening of the creative potential of ancient philosophy, the change in the spiritual climate and social conditions of the then society led to the triumph of Christianity. Philosophy was first overthrown, and then used for the needs of religion, turning into the servant of theology for 1500 years.
The philosophy of ancient Rome was strongly influenced by the Greek tradition. Actually, the ideas of ancient philosophy were subsequently perceived by Europeans precisely in Roman transcription.
The history of the Roman Empire can be interpreted as "the struggle of all against all": slaves and slave owners, patricians and plebeians, emperors and republicans. All this happened against the backdrop of continuous external military-political expansion and the struggle against barbarian invasions. General philosophical problems here fade into the background (similar to the philosophical thought of other China). The tasks of rallying Roman society are of prime importance.
Roman philosophy, like the philosophy of Hellenism, was predominantly ethical in nature and directly influenced the political life of society. The problems of reconciliation of the interests of various groups, the issues of achieving the highest good, the development of life rules, etc., were constantly in the center of her attention. Under these conditions, the philosophy of the Stoics (the so-called younger flock) received the greatest distribution and influence. Developing questions about the rights and obligations of the individual, about the nature of the relationship between the individual and the state, about legal and moral norms, the Roman flock sought to contribute to the education of a disciplined warrior and citizen. The largest representative of the Stoic school was Seneca (5 BC - 65 AD) - a thinker, statesman, the mentor of the emperor Nero (for whom the treatise "On Mercy" was even written). Recommending the emperor to adhere to moderation and the republican spirit in his reign, Seneca achieved only that he was "ordered to die." Following his philosophical principles, the philosopher opened his veins and died, surrounded by admirers.
The main task of the formation of personality, Seneca considers the achievement of virtue. The study of philosophy means not only theoretical studies, but also the actual exercise of virtue. According to the thinker, philosophy is not a cunning idea for the crowd, it does not consist in words, but in deeds (the meaning of philosophy is not to kill boredom), it forms and shapes the spirit, organizes life, controls actions, indicates what needs to be do and what not to do...
Necessity rules the world. Fate is not a blind element. She has a mind, a piece of which is present in every person. One should live according to nature and the subordinating necessity inherent in it (fates lead the one who wants, and drag the one who does not want). Any misfortune, Seneca believes, is an occasion for virtuous self-improvement. However, “the worse it is to live, it is better to die” (of course, this is not about the financial situation). But Seneca does not praise suicide either, in his opinion, resorting to death is as shameful as avoiding it. As a result, the philosopher proposes to strive for high courage, steadfastly enduring everything that fate sends us, and surrender to the will of the laws of nature.
For a long time there was an opinion that the ancient Roman philosophers were not self-sufficient, eclectic, not as ambitious as their Hellenic forerunners. This is not entirely true. Suffice it to recall the poem of Lucretius Cara (c. 99-55 BC) "On the Nature of Things" and a number of other brilliant thinkers, which it is not possible to talk about here. Let us dwell on the ideas of Cicero (106-43 BC), better known as an orator and politician. If Cicero was an eclecticist, it was not at all from creative helplessness, but because of deep conviction. He considered it quite legitimate to combine separate, from his point of view, the most true features of various philosophical systems. This is evidenced by his treatises On the Nature of the Gods, On Foresight, and others. In addition, Cicero in his writings constantly argues with the ideas of the greatest ancient philosophers. So, he sympathizes with the ideas of Plato, but, at the same time, he sharply opposes his "fictional" state. Ridiculing Stoicism and Epicureanism, Cicero speaks positively of the new Academy. He considers it his task to work in the direction that his fellow citizens "expand their education" (a similar idea is pursued by the followers of Plato - the new Academy).
The main provisions of the ancient philosophical schools Cicero expounded vividly and in plain language, created Latin scientific and philosophical terminology, and finally instilled in the Romans an interest in philosophy. All this deserves attention, but, at the same time, leaves aside the main merit of the thinker. We are talking about "thoughtfulness", consistency and harmony, and, especially, the breadth of coverage of problems in the thinker's work, about a remarkable attempt to give fellow citizens a whole picture of philosophy. Thus, on the example of the philosophical work of Cicero, the thesis about the supposedly indifferent attitude of practical Romans to abstract philosophizing loses its evidence.
Summing up, we can state that philosophy, which was formed in the era of Antiquity, for more than a millennium kept and increased theoretical knowledge, served as a regulator of social life, explained the laws of society and nature, created the prerequisites for further development philosophical knowledge. However, after Christianity began to spread in the territory of the Roman Empire, ancient philosophy underwent a serious revision. In symbiosis with Christian positions The Old and New Testament ideas of ancient philosophy (Platonism, Aristotelianism, etc.) laid the foundations of medieval philosophical thought that developed over the next 10 centuries.