Essence of ancient Roman philosophy. Philosophy of ancient Rome Questions to control

Philosophy ancient rome

Ancient Rome did not create new philosophical systems. After the subjugation of Greece to Rome, the teachings that appeared in Ancient Greece in the era of the collapse of the Athenian state - epicureanism, stoicism, skepticism. The prestige of the philosopher reaches its highest point. “The powerful of the world kept a domestic philosopher with their person, who was at the same time their closest friend, mentor, guardian of their souls ... In great sorrows they invited the philosopher to comfort him” (Renan E. Marcus Aurelius ... S. 29-30). The philosopher fulfilled the role that confessors later played in Christianity. “Thus, a real historical miracle was realized, which can be called the dominion of philosophers” (Ibid., p. 32). The practical orientation of the Roman soul led to the fact that in ancient Rome they were interested not in dialectics and metaphysics, but mainly in ethics. The Romans took two main themes from Greek philosophy: how to avoid the fear of death (this was what the Epicureans strove for) and how to meet it with dignity (the Stoics). In ancient Greece, opposed, in ancient Rome, the Stoics and Epicureans complemented each other (Seneca most readily quoted Epicurus).

The popularity of Epicurus was promoted by the poem "On the Nature of Things" by Lucretius Cara, a native of Rome (c. 99 - c. 55 BC). Lucretius was not a theoretician, but a poet, rather an Epicurean than a poet, because he himself explained that he undertook to present the views of Epicurus in poetic form to facilitate their perception, following the principle that the main thing is pleasure, as, say, a patient is given bitter medicine along with honey, so that it is not unpleasant to drink it.

The problem of "God and evil" is one of the most difficult in ethics. Christianity answers it by stating that God has given people free will; Indian philosophy- the concept of karma. The Epicureans give their answer, believing that the gods do not interfere in the lives of people, because otherwise, according to Epicurus, one would have to admit that the gods that allow evil are either not omnipotent or not omnipotent.

And an interesting thing: Epicurus himself, according to Lucretius, turns out to be higher than the gods, because the gods do not interfere, and Epicurus saved humanity from fears with his teachings. Once again we are convinced: the lower the gods are placed, the higher the person turns out to be. “I don’t know anything about the gods,” says Buddha, and ... he becomes deified. The gods do not interfere, says Epicurus, and ... is revered as a god. A recent example is the deification of the rulers of an atheistic state.

The poem of Lucretius ends with a description of mass death from an epidemic. So the optimistic teaching of Epicurus unexpectedly turns into a pessimistic conclusion of the Roman poet regarding the possibility of its realization in life. In the future, with the formation of the empire, there was no room for optimistic teachings at all, and we see only stoics and skeptics.

Epicureanism is more suitable for free people able to climb into the "ivory tower". And the slave? How can he live unnoticed and without fear to enjoy life? Every person in the era of the empire was under the heel of a tyrant. Under these conditions, the teaching of Epicurus loses its vitality, no longer fits the social circumstances of the Roman Empire, when a person is forced to confront the authorities.

None of the numerous followers of Epicurus changed anything in his teaching. Either it is so integral that neither add nor subtract, or creative people did not go to the Epicureans. On the contrary, the metaphysics of the Stoics made a strong tilt towards Platonic idealism, while ethics (and for the Stoics, especially the Roman ones, it was the main one) changed little.

The views of the Roman Stoics differed from the Greek in tone - the strength of their feelings and the expressiveness of their position - and this was due to a change in social conditions. Gradually, the dignity of people was undermined and at the same time their confidence.

The psychological margin of safety was exhausted, and the motives of doom began to prevail. B. Russell wrote that in bad times philosophers invent consolations. “We cannot be happy, but we can be good; let us imagine that as long as we are kind, it does not matter that we are unhappy. This doctrine is heroic and useful in a bad world." (Russell b. History of Western Philosophy. M., 1959. S. 286).

Among the Roman Stoics, the leading features are not pride, dignity, self-confidence and inner steadfastness, but rather weakness, a feeling of insignificance, confusion, brokenness. They do not have the optimism of the Greeks. The concepts of evil and death come to the fore. The Roman Stoics demonstrate the steadfastness of despair and patience, through which the motive of spiritual freedom breaks through.

A famous Roman propagandist of Stoicism was Cicero. They explained the basic Stoic concepts. “But the first task of justice is not to harm anyone, unless you are called to do so by illegality” (Cicero. About old age. About friendship. About responsibilities. M., 1974. S. 63). To live in harmony with nature means “to be always in harmony with virtue, and to choose everything else that corresponds to nature only if it does not contradict virtue” (i.e., wealth, health, etc.). More, however, Cicero became famous as an orator.

Cicero stood at the deathbed of the Republic. As a senator, he speaks like a statesman to the subjects who have elected him. The next famous stoic came when the republic perished. Seneca does not dream of its restoration, he resigned himself to this and his sermon, not edifying, like Cicero's, but friendly, does not address the inhabitants of the state, but to an individual, a friend. The Spaniard Seneca (c. 5 BC - 65 AD) was born in Rome. From 48 AD e. he is the tutor of the future emperor Nero, from whom he accepted death. This is an author for all times and peoples, and if there are several books that everyone should read in their lives, this list includes Moral Letters to Lucilius.

From an aesthetic and moral point of view, the works of Seneca are impeccable. Even in Plato, highly artistic pieces of text are interspersed with quite ordinary ones. In Seneca, everything is carefully finished and combined into one whole, although we are dealing with a series of letters, apparently, indeed, written to the addressee at different times. The unity of the work gives the integrity of the author's worldview. The moral preaching of Seneca does not sin with edification, cheap slogans, but subtly leads and convinces. We see in the author a combination of pride, valor, nobility and mercy, which we do not find either among Christian missionaries or philosophers of modern times.

In the work of Seneca, the motive of suffering prevails, and confidence in the possibility of getting rid of them goes out, leaving hope only for oneself. “We are not able to change ... the order of things, but we are able to gain greatness of spirit, worthy of a good man, and stoically endure all the vicissitudes of the case without arguing with nature” (Seneca L.A. Moral letters to Lucilius. M., 1977. S. 270). Outside of himself, man is powerless, but he can be master of himself. Look for support in your own soul, which is God in man, Seneca advises.

Seneca contrasts external pressure with individual moral self-improvement and the struggle, first of all, with one's own vices. “I didn’t judge anything but myself. And why do you come to me in the hope of benefit. Anyone who expects to find help here is mistaken. Not a doctor, but a patient lives here” (Ibid., p. 124). Unlike the Cynics of the heyday of philosophy, Seneca considers himself sick.

In order to gain independence from the despotic forces in the power of which a person is, Seneca proposes to become indifferent to fate, not to follow like cattle the leaders of the herd and views that find many followers, but to live as required by reason and duty, i.e. by nature. “To live happily and live according to nature is one and the same” (Anthology of World Philosophy. T. I. C. 514).

According to Seneca, death is needed not because suffering exceeds pleasure, as for Hegesius, but as a way of liberation from a life that does not correspond to human dignity. The motive for suicide in Seneca becomes so strong because in the era of the empire it was the only way to become free, and freedom first began to be valued when it disappeared from real life.

The chanting of death by the Roman Stoics is not a thirst for death, but an acknowledgment of the defeat of man. “To the one who fell into the hands of the ruler, who strikes his friends with arrows, to the one whom the master forces to tear out the insides of his own children, I will say: why are you crying, madman, what are you waiting for? For an enemy to destroy your family, for some foreign ruler to attack you? Wherever you turn your eyes, everywhere you will find the way out of your troubles! Look at this steep cliff - it leads to freedom, look at this sea, this stream, this well - freedom lurks at the bottom of them; look at this tree - low, withered, miserable - freedom hangs from it. Your neck, your throat your heart They will help you escape slavery. But these paths are too difficult, they require great strength, mental and bodily; you ask what path to freedom is open; it is in any blood vein of your body” (History of Roman Literature, vol. 2, p. 81).

Death for Seneca is the criterion of a lived life. “All our previous words and deeds are nothing ... death will show what I have achieved, and I will believe it” (Seneca L.A. Moral letters ... S. 50). “Death is not evil. You ask what she is? “The only thing in which the entire human race is equal” (Ibid., p. 320). But in life, all people are equal in one thing - both free and slaves. All people are slaves to fortune. And each is in bondage to himself. “Show me who is not a slave. One is in slavery to lust, the other is in stinginess, the third is in ambition, and all is in fear ... There is no slavery more shameful than voluntary” (Ibid., p. 79). Understanding slavery in the broadest sense and fighting against it, thereby reflecting the growing anti-slavery sentiment, Seneca believes that every person is potentially free, in the soul.

Seneca's morality is distinguished by mercy, philanthropy, compassion, pity, reverent attitude towards other people, benevolence, gentleness. In an all-powerful empire, the life of a philosopher is not safe, and this was fully experienced by Seneca, who was accused by his former student Nero of plotting against himself. Although no evidence was found, Seneca, without waiting for arrest, opened his veins, remaining faithful to his views. It is not so important whether Seneca participated in the conspiracy, the fact that he took part in state affairs at such a time suggests that he was preparing his own death.

Seneca is the pinnacle of moral and philosophical thought. He managed to synthesize what was valuable in ancient ethics, not excluding the opponent of the Stoics, Epicurus. Seneca mocked sophisms and antinomies. He could agree that objective truth is impossible, but for him this question is not important, but the question of how to live? You cannot escape from it by paradoxes, it must be solved here and now.

Seneca united the fates of three great ancient Greek philosophers. He was the tutor of the future emperor, like Aristotle; wrote as artistically as Plato; and died, like Socrates, in the conviction that, according to the establishment of nature, "the one who brings evil is more unfortunate than the one who suffers."

Epictetus (c. 50-140) was the first of famous philosophers, who was a slave, but for the Stoics, who recognize all people as equal, this is not surprising. The owner, who mocked him, broke his leg, and then released the cripple. Together with other philosophers, he was subsequently expelled from Rome and opened his own school in Nicopolis (Epirus). His students were aristocrats, the poor, slaves. In his school of moral perfection, Epictetus taught only ethics, which he called the soul of philosophy.

The first thing the student needed was to realize his own weakness and impotence, which Epictetus called the principles of philosophy. The Stoics, following the Cynics, believed that philosophy is medicine for the soul, but for a person to want to take medicine, he must understand that he is sick. “If you want to be good, first be imbued with the conviction that you are bad” (Quoted in: Makovelsky A. Moral of Epictetus. Kazan, 1912, p. 6).

The first stage of philosophical education is the rejection of false knowledge. Having begun to study philosophy, a person experiences a state of shock, when, under the influence of true knowledge, he seems to go crazy, abandoning his usual ideas. After that, new knowledge becomes the feeling and will of a person.

Three things are necessary, according to Epictetus, to become virtuous: theoretical knowledge, internal self-improvement and practical exercises (“moral gymnastics”). It requires daily self-examination, constant attention to yourself, your thoughts, feelings and actions; vigilant observation of oneself worst enemy. For liberation from passions, it is necessary to gradually reduce the food that they eat. If you are used to being angry every day, try to be angry every other day, etc.

The two main principles of Epictetus are: "withstand and abstain." Steadfastly withstand all the external difficulties that fall upon you, and whatever happens, take it easy. Refrain from any manifestation of your own passions, remembering that yours is only the mind and soul as something unified and rational, and not the body.

On earth all are captives and equally children of God. Epictetus appealed to God so passionately that he was called the forerunner of Christianity. We also find in Epictetus the golden rule of ethics. “The situation that you do not tolerate, do not create for others. If you do not want to be a slave, do not tolerate slavery around you.

Unusually for a philosopher, but completely opposite to that of Epictetus, the social position of Marcus Aurelius (121-180) is emperor. Nevertheless, his pessimism and the courage of despair are just as expressive. Shaky became not only the position of the individual, especially the slave, but also the empire. It was time for her decline. Marcus Aurelius had great power, but it did not please him. Strange as it may seem, it is precisely during the period of the maximum power of the empire that a person inside it feels most unprotected and insignificant, crushed and helpless. The stronger the state, the weaker the individual. And not only a slave or a courtier, but the almighty ruler himself.

Like all Stoics, Marcus Aurelius is looking for meaning. “What do I need to live in a world where there is no deity, where there is no providence” (Marcus Aurelius. Reflections. II, 11). The attempt to get rid of addictions undertaken by the Epicureans makes life meaningless. It is the duty of man to carry out a reasonable trade. “I am doing my duty. Nothing else diverts my attention."

The fulfillment of duty is facilitated by virtues, or rather one virtue as a unity, in various situations manifested in the form of prudence - the knowledge of what is good, what is evil, what should be done and what should not; sanity - the knowledge of what to choose, what to avoid; justice - knowledge about retribution to each according to his merits; courage, knowledge about the terrible and fearless; righteousness - justice towards the gods.

Marcus Aurelius also speaks about the desirability of such character traits as simplicity, integrity, integrity, seriousness, modesty, piety, benevolence, love, firmness in the performance of a proper deed. “So show yourself in what is entirely dependent on you: genuineness, strictness of character, endurance, severity towards yourself, unpretentiousness, benevolence, nobility, self-restraint, not speaking, majesty” (Ibid. IV, 5). “Perfection of character is to spend every day as if it were the last” (Ibid. VII, 69).

Marcus Aurelius came very close to the gospel "love your enemies", although he was an opponent of Christianity. He gives three excuses for why you should not be angry at those who offended you: first, your own goodwill is tested on this; secondly, people cannot be corrected, and therefore there is no point in denouncing them; Thirdly, " The best way revenge on the unkind consists in not becoming like them” (Ibid. VI, 6).

The universal mind is everywhere, like air, and it must be thanked for everything, even for misfortunes. Fate prescribes something to a person, as a doctor prescribes a medicine. Here is not philosophy, as in the Cynics, but fate is a doctor. The medicine is bitter. So the evil in the world is a bitter medicine that nature heals. This is close to the Christian idea that a disease is given as a punishment for sins, and a person cannot and should not figure out what he is punished for. Nature would not give sickness if it did not benefit the whole.

The obstacles themselves, like evil, help us. “And the very obstacle to the cause advances in the matter and the difficulty of the path leads along the path” (Ibid. V, 20). Pain and pleasure have nothing to do with ethics, since they do not make a person better or worse, and therefore are neither good nor evil. Marcus Aurelius owns the well-known expression "life is a struggle", although he was not inclined to admire this.

The main thing in life is to be worthy of God, genius, virtue, and keep your own color, like an emerald. “Curl up into yourself” (Ibid. VII, 28). Live in the present day, but without becoming attached to it, and do not be offended by anyone.

An important place in the philosophy of Marcus Aurelius is occupied by the requirement to always be the same in response to the actions of external circumstances, which means constant proportionality, internal consistency of the mental disposition and all life. “To be like a cliff against which a wave is constantly beating; he stands, and the heated wave subsides around him” (Ibid. V, 49).

Similar thoughts were found in Seneca. “Trust me, it’s a great thing to always play the same role. But no one but the sage does this; all other manifolds" (Seneca A. L. Moral letters ... S. 310). The lack of integrity and wholeness is the reason that people, entangled in the change of masks, turn out to be split. And integrity is needed because the person himself is a part of the world whole, without which he cannot exist separately from the rest of the body, like an arm or a leg. The idea of the unity of everything in the universe is constantly repeated by Marcus Aurelius.

That was the only case in world history, when the state was ruled by a philosopher and the visible social pinnacle of the triumph of philosophy was reached. It would seem that it was Marcus Aurelius who would try to arrange a state on the principles that had been developed by philosophy since Socrates and Plato. But he not only did not start cardinal transformations (although as an emperor he had every opportunity - not like Plato), but did not even turn to people with philosophical sermons that had become fashionable at that time, but kept only a diary - for himself. This is an extreme degree of disappointment in the hope of improving the situation. Plato's wish for a philosopher to rule the state came true, but Marcus Aurelius understood how difficult it was to correct people and social relations. In the self-belittling of Socrates there was irony, in the self-belittling of Seneca and Marcus Aurelius there was genuine sorrow.

Teaching people how to live former slave Epictetus, philosopher on the throne of Marcus Aurelius, statesman and the writer Seneca are comparable in artistic talent with Plato, and in the poignancy of their writings are closer to us than Plato - these are the most significant names of Roman stoicism. All three were united by the conviction that there is a reasonable need for submission to the universal higher principle, and only the mind, and not the body, should be considered one's own. The difference is that, according to Seneca, in the external world everything is subject to fate; according to Epictetus - the will of the gods; according to Marcus Aurelius - the world mind.

The similarity between the Roman Stoics and the Epicureans, as well as between the Greeks, was in the orientation towards life by nature, isolation and autarchy, serenity and apathy, in the idea of the materiality of the gods and the soul, the mortality of man and his return to the world whole. But the understanding of nature by the Epicureans as the material universe, and by the Stoics as mind remained; justice as a social contract - by the Epicureans, and as a duty to the whole world - by the Stoics; recognition of free will by the Epicureans and higher order and predestination by the Stoics; the idea of the linearity of the development of the world among the Epicureans and the cyclical development of the Stoics; orientation towards personal friendship among the Epicureans and participation in public affairs among the Stoics. For the Stoics, the source of happiness is reason, and the main concept is virtue; for the Epicureans, respectively, feelings and pleasures. The Stoics began to move away from the main line of antiquity, and the motives of mercy and humility brought them closer to Christian ethics, like the desire to suppress all desires - to Buddhism. The later Stoics, however, lacked self-confidence, were gnawed by skepticism, and here they gave way to religion.

Skeptics opposed the Stoics and Epicureans in Rome, as in Greece, and their importance increased as the creative potential of philosophy weakened. Skepticism is the inevitable companion of rational wisdom, as atheism is the companion of religious faith, and it only waits for the moment of its weakening, as atheism for the moment of weakening of faith. Denying the notion of the common good, Sextus Empiricus (end of the 2nd - beginning of the 3rd century AD) questions all the achievements of philosophy, starting with Socrates. With his reasoning about the impossibility of rationally explaining the change, Sextus completes what was started by Zeno's aporias. The difference between Sextus and the Eleatics is that they put forward aporias to prove the discrepancy between rational truths and sensory data. Sextus uses aporia to discredit both the testimony of feelings and reasonable arguments. Zeno argued that there is no movement, and Sextus, on the basis of the same aporia, concludes that nothing exists. Socratic skepticism, which makes sense of life, was replaced by the meaningless skepticism of Sextus Empiricus, and with this philosophy signed its own verdict.

However, if everything is denied, then it is impossible to talk about anything. It still makes me speak positively. If I don't know if I know something, then maybe I do know something? Consistent skepticism opens the way to faith. It is the merit of the skeptics to try to define the limits of rational thought in order to know what can and cannot be expected from philosophy. Dissatisfied with the framework in which the mind functions, they turned to religion. Undermining the conclusions of reason, the skeptics more and more incline people to faith and thus prepared the victory of Christianity, for which faith is higher than reason. They were helped by the Epicureans and the Stoics. It turned out that the fear of death cannot be defeated by reasonable arguments. Christianity did not arise by chance; its spread was prepared by the logic of the development of ancient culture. People want not only happiness here, but also after death. Neither Epicurus nor the Stoics nor the Skeptics promised this. Faced with a dilemma: reason or faith, people preferred faith, in this case Christian. Turning away from rational wisdom, a younger and more self-confident Christianity defeated the decrepit ancient philosophy. The latter reposed like a wise old man giving way to a new generation.

From the end of the 2nd century Christianity takes over the minds of the masses. It can be said that Christianity, in the fight against philosophy, defeated the most powerful empire in the history of mankind, and the only emperor-philosopher in history suffered a crushing spiritual defeat. Why did this happen? Weakening of creativity ancient philosophy, the change in the spiritual climate and social conditions of the then society led to the triumph of Christianity. Philosophy was first overthrown, and then used for the needs of religion, turning into a servant of theology for one and a half thousand years.

In Roman civilization, philosophy loses its theoretical power, becoming predominantly practical wisdom, which deprives it of its main advantage - a reasonable search for truth. Trying to be primarily useful, philosophy exhausts itself.

This text is an introductory piece.

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Novosibirsk State Technical University

"Philosophers of Ancient Rome and their role in the history of world culture"

Novosibirsk

Introduction

1. Roman Stoicism

1.1 Seneca

1.2 Epictetus

1.3 Marcus Aurelius

2. Roman Epicureanism

2.1 Titus Lucretius car

3. Roman skepticism

3.1 Aenesidemus

3.1 Sextus Empiricus

4. Roman eclecticism

4.1 Marcus Thulius Cicero

Conclusion

Introduction

Philosophy is a special form of knowledge that seeks to develop a system of knowledge about the fundamental principles of reality, about the relationship between man and the world.

In the sphere of philosophy, Rome developed the ideas of the main Greek philosophical schools and significantly contributed to the popularization of the philosophical thought of the Greeks. Despite the similarities and continuity of Roman philosophical thought, it differed from Greek. The reason for this is a radically different paradigm of values that arose in Roman society, the main pillars of which are: patriotism, honor, dignity, fidelity to civic duty and the unique idea of God's chosen people (which later became a hallmark of all empires). The Romans did not share the Greek glorification of the free individual, allowing the violation of the established laws of society. On the contrary, they in every way exalted the role and value of the law, the immutability of its observance and respect. For them, public interests were higher than the interests of the individual, which is probably why the Romans were interested not so much in theoretical research and the search for new knowledge as in the generalization, systematization and practical application of already accumulated knowledge.

In Rome, three philosophical schools developed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism. Eclecticism was widespread - the unification of the teachings of different philosophical schools.

1. Roman Stoicism

Stoicism is (if very briefly and generally) a philosophical doctrine, (first formulated by the Greek philosopher Zeno of China) asserting the corporality of the world as a living organism, its organic connection with the cosmos and the equality of all people as citizens of the cosmos. In its ethical norms, stoicism requires victory over one's passions and conscious submission of a person to the prevailing necessity in the world (probably that is why during the time of the Roman Empire, with its strong state, collectivist beginning, it was the teaching of the Stoics that turns into a kind of religion for the people, and the entire empire, the greatest using influence in Syria and Palestine) Roman philosophy, like the philosophy of Hellenism, was predominantly ethical in nature and directly influenced the political life of society. Her focus was constantly on the problems of reconciling the interests of various groups, the achievement of the highest good and the development of specific rules of life. Under these conditions, the philosophy of the Stoics (the so-called younger flock) received the greatest distribution and influence. Developing questions about the rights and obligations of the individual, about the nature of the relationship between the individual and the state, about legal and moral norms, the Roman flock sought to contribute to the education of a disciplined warrior and citizen.

1.1 Seneca

The largest representative of the Stoic school was Seneca (5 BC - 65 AD) - a thinker, statesman, mentor of Emperor Nero (for whom even the treatise "On Mercy" was written). Recommending the emperor to adhere to moderation and the republican spirit in his reign, Seneca achieved only that he was "ordered to die." Following his philosophical principles, the philosopher opened his veins and died, surrounded by admirers.

The main task of the formation of personality, Seneca considers the achievement of virtue. The study of philosophy means not only theoretical studies, but also the actual exercise of virtue. According to the thinker, philosophy is not a cunning idea for the crowd, it does not consist in words, but in deeds (the meaning of philosophy is not to kill boredom), it forms and shapes the spirit, organizes life, controls actions, indicates what needs to be do and what not to do. Any misfortune, Seneca believes, is an occasion for virtuous self-improvement. However, “the worse it is to live, it is better to die” (of course, this is not about the financial situation). But Seneca does not praise suicide either, in his opinion, resorting to death is as shameful as avoiding it. As a result, the philosopher proposes to strive for high courage, steadfastly enduring everything that fate sends us, and surrender to the will of the laws of nature.

1.2 Epictetus

Another significant representative of the Roman school of Stoicism, Epictetus, who was a slave, later became a freedman, founded a philosophical school in Nikopol.

Epictetus formulated the main task of philosophy as follows: it is necessary to teach to distinguish between what is within our power and what is not. We are not subject to everything that is outside of us, bodily, external world. But it is not these things themselves, but only our ideas about them that make us happy or unhappy. It turns out that our thoughts, aspirations, and, consequently, our happiness are subject to us. All people are slaves of the one God, and the whole life of a person must be in connection with God, which makes a person able to courageously resist the vicissitudes of life (such opposition is the virtuous basis of stoicism). An amazing reflection: Epictetus was a pagan all his life, but his philosophy was very popular with Christians, being Christian in spirit.

1.3 Marcus Aurelius

Another prominent Roman Stoic is Emperor Marcus Aurelius. He pays the greatest attention in his philosophy to ethics.

The previous tradition of Stoicism distinguished in man only the body and the soul. Marcus Aurelius already sees three principles in a person, adding intellect to the soul and body ( smart start, or nous). If the former Stoics considered the soul to be the dominant principle, then Marcus Aurelius calls the mind the leading principle. Reason is an inexhaustible source of impulses necessary for a worthy human life. One must bring one's mind into harmony with the nature of the whole, and thereby achieve dispassion. According to Marcus Aurelius, it is in accordance with the universal mind that happiness is concluded.

2. Roman Epicureanism

Epicureanism is a moral and philosophical doctrine that proclaims the highest goal in life is pleasure and the desire for sensual pleasures. The paradigm of Epicureanism is the four main principles, the so-called "fourfold medicine":

should not be afraid of the gods.

should not be afraid of death.

benefit is easily achievable.

evil is easily tolerated.

2.1 Titus Lucretius Car

In the first half of the 1st c. BC e. one of the greatest classics of Epicureanism, Titus Lucretius Carus (99-55 BC), also worked. Lucretius Carus postulated the free will of man, the absence of the influence of the gods on people's lives (without rejecting, however, the very existence of the gods). He believed that the goal of human life should be ataraxia, rejected the fear of death, death itself and the afterlife: in his opinion, matter is eternal and infinite. From him, the only work survived - the poem "On the Nature of Things", its main idea is reduced to a discussion "the essence of the highest heavens and gods."

Of all the sorrows and sorrows of man, the most terrible, according to Lucretius, is the fear of death.

Having set out to completely expel the fear of death, the poet admits that this must be done by "nature itself with its appearance and internal structure."

It is possible to get rid of the fear of death only by knowing the essence of the soul and spirit. Lucretius characterizes the first as an area of elementary experiences: sensations and feelings; it animates matter, moves it; the spirit is that which “rules over the whole body”—the mind or intellect. Despite the functional differences, according to Lucretius, the soul and spirit "are in close connection with each other and form a single entity," since "they have a bodily nature." This means that, like other bodies, "the spirit ... and light souls of all creatures are both born and die." They are inseparable from the body and live only with it. With this conclusion, Lucretius subjected to decisive criticism the idealistic theory of the soul of Plato.

Nature, according to Lucretius, does not need any creation. If, however, you think that “the gods deigned to make it”, then it is not clear why the “immortal blessed ones” needed it, the poet ironically.

3. Roman skepticism

Skepticism is a philosophical trend that proclaims doubt as a principle of thought, especially doubt about the existence of an objective and reliable criterion of truth.

The main representative of Roman skepticism, Aenesidemus of Knossos (ca. 1st century BC), in his views is close to the philosophy of his ancient Greek predecessor Pyrrho. The influence that Greek skepticism had on the formation of Aenesidemus' thoughts is evidenced by the fact that he devoted his main work to the interpretation of the teachings of Pyrrho ("Eight Books of Pyrrho's Reasonings").

3.1 Aenesidemus

Aenesidemus saw in skepticism a way to overcome the dogmatism of all existing philosophical trends. He paid much attention to the analysis of contradictions in the teachings of other philosophers. The conclusion of his skeptical views is that it is impossible to make any judgments about reality based on direct sensations. To substantiate this conclusion, he uses the formulation of so-called tropes. (Such as: doubt in the foundation of a person to be a criterion of truth, its dependence on circumstances, refraining from judgments, etc.)

3.2 Sextus Empiricus

The most prominent representative of the so-called junior skepticism was Sextus Empiricus. His teaching also comes from Greek skepticism. This is evidenced by the title of one of his works - "Fundamentals of Pyrrhonism." In other works - "Against Dogmatists", "Against Mathematicians" - he sets out a methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of knowledge of that time. Critical assessment is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, etc. The question of the existence of gods did not escape his skeptical approach, which led him to atheism.

In his works, he seeks to prove that skepticism is an original philosophy that does not allow confusion with other philosophical trends. Sextus Empiricus shows that skepticism differs from all other philosophical currents, each of which recognizes certain essences and excludes others, in that it simultaneously questions and admits all essences.

Roman skepticism was a specific expression of the progressive crisis of Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of value, on the whole it is already a philosophy that has lost that spiritual power that elevated ancient thinking to its heights. In essence, skepticism contains more outright rejection than methodological criticism.

4. Roman eclecticism

Eclecticism as a philosophical trend sought to combine all the best that was in each of the philosophical schools. Most prominent representative her was Mark Thulius Cicero.

Roman Stoicism Skepticism Cicero

4.1 Marcus Thulius Cicero

His philosophical treatises, containing no new ideas, are valuable because they set forth, in detail and without distortion, the teachings of the leading philosophical schools of his time.

Eclecticism in the presentation of Cicero focuses on social issues. His motive was to combine those parts of various philosophical systems that bring useful knowledge.

The social views of Cicero reflect his position as a representative of the upper strata of Roman society during the republic. He sees the best social structure in a combination of three basic state forms: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He considers the goal of the state to provide citizens with security and free use of property. His theoretical views were largely influenced by his actual political activities.

In ethics, he largely adopts the views of the Stoics, pays considerable attention to the problems of virtue set forth by the Stoics. He considers man to be a rational being, which has something divine in itself. Virtue refers to the overcoming of all life's adversities by willpower. Philosophy renders invaluable services to man in this matter. Each of the philosophical directions comes to the achievement of virtue in its own way. Therefore, Cicero recommends "combining" everything that is the contribution of individual philosophical schools, all their achievements into one whole.

The main provisions of the ancient philosophical schools Cicero expounded vividly and in plain language, created Latin scientific and philosophical terminology, and finally instilled in the Romans an interest in philosophy.

Conclusion

The main value of the works of the philosophers of ancient Rome and of all Roman philosophy as a whole lies in its generalizing, mediating function. Having absorbed the main provisions and ideas of the Greek school, Roman philosophy subjected them to rethinking and generalization according to the Roman system of values. It is in this generalized, eclectic Roman transcription philosophical teachings Ancient Greece became the basis for the formation Christian worldview, which became undividedly dominant in the long era of the Middle Ages.

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Virtues are the basis of teaching

When the Greek state fell, Hellenic stoicism, as a direction that promotes conscious self-control over weaknesses, inclinations, and submission to common sense, received its further development in the Roman stoic teaching.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BC - 65 AD) is considered the most prominent Stoic of Roman philosophical thought. The young man was born in the middle class, received a good education.

Seneca followed strict temperance laws. But, despite the ascetic views, Lucius made a successful political career, was known as an orator, poet, writer.

The reasoning of the Stoic had a patriotic essence in many respects - he talked about the Motherland, a foreign land, came to the conclusion that there is no foreign land, all of it is native. Seneca often wondered about public life - a personal duty to the state and to himself. This reasoning is devoted to his treatise "On the brevity of life."

As a grown man, Lucius was given the great honor of being the tutor of the future Roman emperor-tyrant Nero, who was known for his particular cruelty. Especially for him, the Stoic wrote a treatise "On Benefits", which called for listening to one's own conscience. Seneca said "that knowledge of kindness is not enough, you still need to be able to do good." But the teacher never managed to win evil inclination pupil. Nero forced Lucius to commit suicide.

The philosophy of teaching spread to noble circles. Emperor Marcus Aurelius is considered the last Stoic of ancient Stoicism. For the then slave-owning Rome, it was extremely important that at such a high state level (in the person of Emperor Aurelius), the makings of democracy appeared.

Classifying the virtues, the Stoics divided them into two groups.

Personal virtues: mercy, honor, purposefulness, friendliness, culture, thoughtfulness. As well as thrift, diligence, wisdom, health, endurance, honesty.

Public virtues: wealth, justice, mercy, prosperity, trust, luck. Also - joy, fun, freedom, nobility. And patience, generosity, faith in God, security, manliness, fertility, hope.

Stoicism as a school of humility, moderation

The direction of Stoicism became so close for the ancient Roman, Greek citizens that philosophical thought continued to develop it until the end of the ancient period.

Epictetus was an outstanding follower of the Stoic school. By origin, the thinker was a slave, which was reflected in his philosophical views. Epictetus proposed to abolish slavery, to equalize all people. He believed that people are equal by birth, castes were invented to support future generations of noble families. A person must independently achieve respect, and not inherit it. Especially not to inherit the absence of any rights. Such an ideology was not characteristic of the philosophy of Ancient Greece.

Epictetus considered the philosophy of equality, humility and moderation a way of life, even a science, with the help of which a person acquires self-control, does not pursue the achievement of worldly pleasures, and is fearless before death. The Stoic reduced the meaning of his reasoning to the contentment of what is, and not to the desire for more. This lifestyle will never lead to disappointment. Briefly, Epictetus called his life motto apathy or obedience to God. Humility, acceptance of fate as it is, is the highest spiritual freedom.

Skepticism of ancient Roman philosophers

Skepticism is a phenomenal manifestation of philosophical thought. It is characteristic of the sages of both the Greek and Roman ancient world, which once again proves the interweaving of two opposing philosophies of that era. The similarity is especially clearly manifested in the period of late antiquity, when there is a social, political decline, the collapse of great civilizations.

The main idea of skepticism is the denial of any statements, final dogmas, rejection of the theories of other philosophical movements. Adepts argued that the disciplines are contradictory, self-exclude themselves, each other. Only the teaching of skeptics has an original feature - it simultaneously accepts other opinions and doubts them.

Ancient Rome is known for such skeptics: Aenesidemus, Agrippa, Empiric.

Epicureanism - the way of adaptation to the world

The philosophical concept of ethics again unites two rival camps - the Greeks, the Romans.

Initially, the Hellenistic thinker Epicurus (342-270 BC) founded a philosophical direction, the purpose of which was to achieve a happy, carefree life without sorrows. Epicurus taught not to modify reality, but to adapt to it. To do this, the philosopher developed three necessary principles:

Ethical - with the help of ethics, a person achieves happiness.
Physical - with the help of physics, a person comprehends the natural world, which allows him not to feel fear of him. He helps the first principle.
Canonical - using methodology scientific knowledge the realization of the first principles of Epicureanism is available.

Epicurus believed that for the organization of a happy one needs not the unimpeded manifestation of knowledge, but their implementation in practice, but within pre-fixed boundaries.

Paradoxically, the ancient Roman thinker Lucretius became a figurative follower of Epicurus. He was radical in his statements, which simultaneously aroused the delight and anger of his contemporaries. Discussing with opponents (especially skeptics), the Epicurean relied on science, proving the importance of its existence: “If there is no science, then every day we observe the rise of a new sun. But we know it's only one." He criticized Plato's theory of the transmigration of souls: "If a person dies someday anyway, it doesn't matter where his soul goes." Lucretius was puzzled by the emergence of civilizations: “At first, mankind was wild, everything changed with the advent of fire. The formation of society can be attributed to the period when people learned to negotiate with each other.

Lucretius became a representative of the Hellenism of Epicurus, criticizing the perverted mores of the Romans.

Rhetoric of Ancient Rome

The brightest orator ancient roman philosophy was Marcus Tullius Cicero. He considered rhetoric to be the basis of the thought process. The doer wanted to "make friends" of the Roman thirst for virtue with Greek skillful philosophizing. Being a born orator, an active politician, Mark called for the creation of a just state.

Cicero believed that it is available by mixing the only three correct forms of government: monarchy, democracy, aristocracy. Compliance with a mixed constitution will ensure the so-called "great equality" by the sage.

It was Cicero who introduced society to the concept of "humanitus", which means "humanity, humanity, philosophy common sense". The thinker said that the concept is based on moral norms, capable of making every person a full member of society.

His knowledge in the scientific field is so great that Mark was recognized as the encyclopedic philosopher of antiquity.

The opinion of the philosopher about ethics, morality was as follows: “Every science comprehends virtue in its own extraordinary way. According to this, every educated person should get acquainted with various methods of cognition, test them. Any everyday problems are solved by willpower.

Philosophical and religious currents

Ancient Roman traditional philosophers actively continued their activities in antiquity. The teachings of Plato were very popular. But the philosophical and religious schools became a newfangled trend of that time, a connecting bridge between the West and the East. The teachings asked a global question about the relationship, opposition of matter and spirit.

An interesting trend was neo-Pythagoreanism, whose representatives philosophized about the inconsistency of the world, the unity of God. The Neo-Pythagoreans studied numbers from the mystical side, created a whole doctrine of the magic of numbers. Apollonius of Tyana became an outstanding follower of this philosophical school.

Intellectual personalities clung to the teachings of Philo of Alexandria. The main idea of the sage was to merge Platonism with Judaism. Philo explained that Jehovah created the Logos, which then created the world.

Religious worldviews were distinguished by primitive superstitious polytheism, where every phenomenon had a double.

The cult of vestal priestesses, chaste guardians of the state, was highly respected.

Philosophy is characterized by eclecticism, like the whole of this era. This culture was formed in conflict with the Greek civilization and at the same time felt unity with it. Roman philosophy was not very interested in how nature works - it mainly talked about life, overcoming adversity and danger, as well as how to combine religion, physics, logic and ethics.

The doctrine of the virtues

One of the most prominent representatives of the Stoic school was Seneca. He was the teacher of Nero, the emperor of ancient Rome, known for his bad reputation. set out in such works as "Letters to Lucilius", "Questions of Nature". But Roman Stoicism was different from the classical Greek trend. So, Zeno and Chrysippus considered logic the skeleton of philosophy, and the soul - physics. Ethics, they considered it to be its muscles. Seneca was the new Stoic. The soul of thought and of all virtue he called ethics. Yes, and he lived in accordance with his principles. For the fact that he did not approve of the repression of his pupil against Christians and the opposition, the emperor ordered Seneca to commit suicide, which he did with dignity.

School of Humility and Temperance

The philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome perceived Stoicism very positively and developed this direction until the very end of the era of antiquity. Another famous thinker of this school is Epictetus, the first philosopher of the ancient world, who was a slave by birth. This left an imprint on his views. Epictetus openly called for considering slaves to be the same people as everyone else, which was inaccessible to Greek philosophy. For him, stoicism was a way of life, a science that allows you to maintain self-control, not to seek pleasure and not be afraid of death. He declared that one should not wish for the best, but for what is already there. Then you will not be disappointed in life. Epictetus called his philosophical credo apathy, the science of dying. This he called obedience to the Logos (God). Humility with fate is a manifestation of the highest spiritual freedom. Emperor was a follower of Epictetus

Skeptics

Historians studying the development of human thought consider such a phenomenon as ancient philosophy to be a single entity. were similar in a number of respects. This is especially true for the period of late antiquity. For example, both Greek and Roman thought knew such a phenomenon as skepticism. This direction always arises at the time of the decline of major civilizations. In the philosophy of Ancient Rome, its representatives were Aeneside from Knossos (a student of Pyrrho), Agrippa, Sextus Empiricus. All of them were similar to each other in that they opposed any kind of dogmatism. Their main slogan was the assertion that all disciplines contradict each other and negate themselves, only skepticism accepts everything and at the same time questions it.

"On the Nature of Things"

Epicureanism was another popular school of ancient Rome. This philosophy became known primarily thanks to Titus Lucretius Carus, who lived in a rather turbulent time. He was an interpreter of Epicurus and in the poem "On the Nature of Things" in verse he outlined his philosophical system. First of all, he explained the doctrine of atoms. They are devoid of any properties, but their totality creates the qualities of things. The number of atoms in nature is always the same. Thanks to them, the transformation of matter occurs. Nothing comes from nothing. The worlds are multiple, they arise and perish according to the law of natural necessity, and atoms are eternal. The universe is infinite, while time exists only in objects and processes, and not by itself.

Epicureanism

Lucretius was one of the best thinkers and poets of ancient Rome. His philosophy aroused both admiration and indignation among his contemporaries. He constantly argued with representatives of other directions, especially with skeptics. Lucretius believed that they were wrong to consider science non-existent, because otherwise we would constantly think that a new sun rises every day. Meanwhile, we know perfectly well that this is one and the same luminary. Lucretius also criticized the Platonic idea of the transmigration of souls. He said that since the individual dies anyway, it doesn't matter where his spirit goes. Both the material and the psychic in a person are born, grow old and die. Lucretius also thought about the origin of civilization. He wrote that people first lived in a state of savagery until they recognized fire. And society arose as a result of an agreement between individuals. Lucretius preached a kind of Epicurean atheism and at the same time criticized Roman customs as too perverted.

Rhetoric

The most prominent representative of the eclecticism of Ancient Rome, whose philosophy is the subject of this article, was Marcus Tullius Cicero. He considered rhetoric to be the basis of all thinking. This politician and speaker tried to combine the Roman desire for virtue and the Greek art of philosophizing. It was Cicero who coined the concept of "humanitas", which we now widely use in political and public discourse. In the field of science, this thinker can be called an encyclopedist. As for morality and ethics, in this area he believed that each discipline goes to virtue in its own way. Therefore, every educated person should know any ways of cognition and accept them. And all sorts of everyday hardships are overcome by willpower.

Philosophical and religious schools

During this period, traditional ancient philosophy continued to develop. Ancient Rome well accepted the teachings of Plato and his followers. Especially at that time, philosophical and religious schools that united the West and the East were fashionable. The main questions that these teachings raised were the relationship and opposition of spirit and matter.

One of the most popular trends was neo-Pythagoreanism. It promoted the idea of a single God and a world full of contradictions. The Neo-Pythagoreans believed in the magic of numbers. Very famous figure of this school was Apollonius of Tyana, whom Apuleius ridiculed in his Metamorphoses. Among the Roman intellectuals, a doctrine dominated which tried to combine Judaism with Platonism. He believed that Jehovah gave birth to the Logos that created the world. No wonder Engels once called Philo "the uncle of Christianity."

The most fashionable trends

The main schools of philosophy of Ancient Rome include Neoplatonism. The thinkers of this trend created the doctrine of a whole system of mediators - emanations - between God and the world. The most famous Neoplatonists were Ammonius Sakkas, Plotinus, Iamblichus, Proclus. They professed polytheism. Philosophically, the Neoplatonists explored the process of creation as highlighting the new and eternal return. They considered God to be the cause, beginning, essence, and purpose of all things. The Creator pours out into the world, and therefore a person in a kind of frenzy can rise to Him. This state they called ecstasy. Close to Iamblichus were the eternal opponents of the Neoplatonists - the Gnostics. They believed that evil has an independent beginning, and all emanations are the result of the fact that creation began against the will of God.

The philosophy of Ancient Rome has been briefly described above. We see that the thought of this era was strongly influenced by its predecessors. These were Greek natural philosophers, Stoics, Platonists, Pythagoreans. Of course, the Romans somehow changed or developed the meaning of previous ideas. But it was their popularization that proved ultimately useful for ancient philosophy as a whole. After all, it was thanks to the Roman philosophers that medieval Europe met the Greeks and began to study them in the future.

The philosophy of ancient Rome (from the 3rd century BC) developed under the strong influence of Greek culture. It was represented mainly by three currents: Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism. The leading role among them was played by Stoic philosophy (Seneca Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius).

Seneca("uncle of Christianity") was the most prominent figure in Roman stoicism. He held the idea that everything in this world is in the power of rigid necessity and predestination. God as the supreme force ("active mind") gives the world integrity, order and expediency. God is that on which everything depends and proceeds. God is nature, reason, reason and destiny. The world is literally bound by the iron chains of necessity, or fate. Consequently, human freedom can only consist in the awareness of this necessity and voluntary submission to it. But since the world is rational, then freedom must also consist in subordination only to rational necessity. In all other cases, freedom will certainly mean slavery. Obedience to fate is the lot of every person if he does not want to fall into slavery. To live happily means for Seneca to live in harmony with the outside world, submissively obeying it.

The existence of a person is always short, fleeting, therefore, according to the philosopher, one should not strive for dubious goals: the accumulation of wealth and gaining power in society. It is much more important to improve your soul, overcome the fear of impending death and find peace. It is best to seek shelter in the "quiet backwater" than to expose yourself to the "blow of the waves" in the stormy and always restless ocean of life. Seneca believed that relations in society should be permeated with moral values. Society is a single whole, and it must be maintained by people's love, compassion and care for each other. As in the world as a whole, it is impossible to change the order of things in a society, so everyone should treat each other as comrades in forced slavery. Proceeding from this circumstance, Seneca formulated the "golden rule" of morality: "Treat those who are lower as you would like to be treated by those who are higher than you." All people are in fact slaves of fate. At the same time, they are equally free, because they given to dispose of his soul and his thoughts. In this sense, prison is not a barrier for a person, Seneca naively believed. Freedom of the spirit is what attracts a person to the truly great and eternal. "

Epictetus(a former slave) emphasized that the main task of any philosophy is to help a person arrange his life correctly. It is almost impossible to change the surrounding world, and therefore it remains only to take care of the relationship of people with each other. You should obey the order of things in the world and focus on the states of your soul. According to Epictetus, it is important, first of all, to honor the gods and believe in them, not to interfere in current events, but to obey them. The world was created by God and therefore reasonable, which is why each individual person can only exist for the sake of the whole and obey it.

Marcus Aurelius(Roman emperor), like all the Stoics, believed that a person's freedom is limited only by the space of his thought. This is the only thing that is in his power. The main task of all human actions should be subordination to the cosmic order of things. Man is just a particle of an endless world stream. His whole life is a short moment, struggle and wandering in a foreign land. Life is a smoke, and only philosophy is able to give a person consolation and peace. If fate rules, then why resist it? Man is mortal, his life is completely incomparable with the endless and impetuous flow of time. And the longest, and the most short life equally vulnerable to this all-devouring and ruthless flow. There is only one choice left: to live in the present, because the past is lived, and the future is unknown.

Epicureanism was represented in ancient Rome mainly by "the work of the philosopher-poet Tita Lucretia Kara(poem "On the Nature of Things"). Lucretius was a consistent supporter of the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus, defending their atomistic theory. In his poem, he wrote about the gods, about the soul and its properties, about the physiology of man and his knowledge of the world. Matter for Lucretius is the world of moving atoms. It is uncreated and indestructible by anyone, infinite in time and space. Atoms, as some kind of "bricks" of the world, have different sizes and shapes, which explains the diversity of the world. The human soul is also material "being created from air and heat. The spirit, according to Lucretius, is very thin and has the highest speed.

Studying public life, Lucretius recorded the presence of progress in it. Thus, he noted that in the primitive state, people were essentially in a wild state and did not yet have either fire or dwellings. Over time, the primitive herd acquired signs of society. It gradually formed such important institutions as morality and law. However, the dependence of man on natural and social forces still remained, which gives rise to religious faith. Ignorance and fear gave birth to the gods, emphasized the Roman philosopher. To make people happy, they must be relieved of the feeling of fear of the gods, and various sciences (including philosophy) can help them in this matter.

The philosophy of Lucretius, like all Epicureanism, focused on explaining the world from the standpoint of common sense and natural science. The teachings of this ancient enlightener brought people knowledge and self-confidence, helped them overcome prejudices and delusions.

Roman skepticism was represented by several famous thinkers. The most notable among them was Sextus Empiricus, a physician by profession. He made a great contribution to the study of the history of skepticism and its systematization (works "Against the Scientists", "Pyrrho's Principles"). As in Greece, Roman skepticism expressed the crisis of society and carried in itself the charge of criticism of knowledge.

In ancient Rome, eclecticism also took place, uniting heterogeneous teachings and schools. Among its authors stood out Mark Thulius Cicero, an outstanding politician and orator, philosopher. In his work, he addressed, first of all, social issues, being committed to the best traditions of Greek philosophy. According to Cicero, the main task Philosophy is “cultivating the soul of a person”, teaching him the art of right living and shaping the qualities of a citizen. Philosophy is wisdom, the knowledge of good and evil, and therefore none of the fools can ever become a happy person.

Ancient Roman society had a rich science and culture for those times. Poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid gained worldwide fame. In Rome, the grandiose architectural complexes of the Colosseum and the Pantheon were erected. That time gave famous historians - Joseph Flavius, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus. In the first half of the II century AD. An outstanding astronomer, mathematician and philosopher Claudius Ptolemy lived in Rome. The well-known physician Galen (“Roman Hippocrates”), the author of the doctrine of the movement of blood in the human body, also worked in Rome.

The philosophy of ancient Rome completes the development of philosophical thought in an era of crisis and collapse of the slave-owning formation. In the depths of this philosophy and on its “fragments”, the ideological prerequisites for the emergence of early Christianity as a new religion, a picture of the world around and a person in it, were formed.

QUESTIONS TO CONTROL

1. What processes and phenomena of social life "nourished" the development of philosophical thought in the ancient world?

2. What can you say about the subject field (range of problems) of ancient philosophy? What is characteristic of him?

3. What did cosmocentrism mean ancient Greek philosophy?

4. Is it possible to talk about the presence in ancient philosophy elements of scientific knowledge about man?

5. What is the ideological and methodological significance of ancient Greek philosophy?

RELATED LITERATURE

1. Asmus V.F. ancient philosophy. - 2nd ed. - M., 1976.

2 Bogomolov A.S. Antique Philosophy. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1985.

3. Dzhokhadze D.V. The main stages in the development of ancient philosophy. - M., 1977.

4. Ivanov G R. History of ethics ancient world. - L.: LGU, 1980. 5 Cassidy F.Kh. From Myth to Logos (The Formation of Greek Philosophy). - M .: Thought, 1972. "

6. Kun N.A. Legends and myths of Ancient Greece. - M.: Vika-press, Ark-tos, 1992.

7. Losev A F. History of ancient philosophy in a concise presentation. - M. Thought, 1989.

8. Frolov E D Torch of Prometheus. Essays on ancient social thought. - 2nd edition - L .. Leningrad State University, 1991.

9. Chanyshev A.N. Course of lectures on ancient philosophy: Proc. allowance for philosophy. fak. and departments of un-comrade. - M.: Higher school, 1981

MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY: ORIGINS FEATURES, CONTENT