Presentation on the topic of Kant's philosophy. Presentation on the topic "Kant Immanuel"

"German Classical Philosophy" - Kant's contribution to philosophy. Criticism of the power of judgment. Kant acts as an empiricist. Knowledge. Starry sky. German classical philosophy. Newtonian mechanics. Immanuel Kant. Knowledge prior to experience. Hypothetical imperatives. Critique of practical reason. The nature of obligation. Main ideas. The doctrine of phenomena.

“History of Philosophy” - Ways of approaching the good. Main characteristics of German classical philosophy. Philosophical knowledge Ancient Greece. The type of worldview is theocentric. Anti-feudal orientation. Philosophy of the New Age 17-19 centuries. History of philosophy. The task of the philosopher in India. The type of worldview is cosmocentrism.

“Philosophy of the Renaissance and Modern Times” - Bertrand Russell. Periodization. Francesco Petrarca. Basic ideas of political philosophy. Nicolaus Copernicus. Giordano Bruno. Francis Bacon. New time. Renaissance. Representatives of natural philosophy. The most famous philosophers. John Locke. Reformation. Thomas Hobbes. Rene Descartes. The main directions of Renaissance philosophy.

“Modern Philosophy” - Existentialism – the philosophy of crisis. Problems of postpositivism. Post-positivism. L. Feuerbach. A. Schopenhauer (1788-1860). Neopositivism. "Second Positivism". O. Kont. Three stages of human development. Modern philosophy. One innate mistake for everyone is belief. Pluralism is a characteristic of modern philosophy.

“The End of Classical German Philosophy” - Philosophy of Religion. Alienation of labor. The concept of material production. Feuerbach and Marx. Historical development. Karl Marx. Classes as subjects of natural activity. Bourgeois society as a society of total alienation. People make their own history. "Substance" or "self-consciousness". Contradiction between Hegel's system and method.

"Philosophy of the 20th century" - Shadow. Freud's main conclusion. Western philosophy of the 20th century, its main directions. The structure of the human psyche (according to S. Freud). The human psyche is an arena of constant struggle. A person. Neopositivism. Neo-Thomism proclaims high value human personality. S. Freud's teaching on the unconscious. Hermeneutics.

There are a total of 17 presentations in the topic

Biography Born into a poor family of an artisan saddle maker. Under the care of doctor of theology Franz Albert Schulz, who noticed talent in Immanuel, Kant graduated from the prestigious Friedrichs-Collegium gymnasium and then entered the University of Königsberg. Due to the death of his father, he is unable to complete his studies and, in order to support his family, Kant becomes a home teacher for 10 years. It was during this time that he developed and published his cosmogenic hypothesis of the origin of the solar system. In 1755, Kant defended his dissertation and received his doctorate, which finally gave him the right to teach at the university. Forty years of teaching began. In 1770, at the age of 46, he was appointed professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Königsberg, where until 1797 he taught an extensive range of philosophical, mathematical, and physical disciplines. By this time, Kant’s fundamentally important recognition of the goals of his work had matured: “The long-conceived plan for how to work the field of pure philosophy consisted of solving three problems.

Kant's Three Problems: What Can I Know? (metaphysics); what should I do? (morality); What can I hope for? (religion); finally, this should have been followed by the fourth task: what is a person? (anthropology).

Stages of creativity Kant went through two stages in his philosophical development: “precritical” and “critical”: Stage I (years) developed problems that were posed by previous philosophical thought. developed a cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the Solar System from a giant primordial gas nebula (“General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens,” 1755) put forward the idea of distributing animals in the order of their possible origin; put forward the idea of the natural origin of human races; studied the role of ebbs and flows on our planet. Stage II (starts from 1770 or 1780s) deals with issues of epistemology and in particular the process of cognition, reflects on metaphysical, that is, general philosophical problems of being, cognition, man, morality, state and law, aesthetics.

Works of the philosopher: Critique of Pure Reason; Critique of Pure Reason; Critique of Practical Reason; Critique of Practical Reason; Critique of judgment; Critique of judgment; Fundamentals of the metaphysics of morality; Fundamentals of the metaphysics of morality; The question is whether the Earth is aging from a physical point of view; The question is whether the Earth is aging from a physical point of view; General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens; General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens; Thoughts on the true assessment of living forces; Thoughts on the true assessment of living forces; Answer to the question: what is enlightenment? Answer to the question: what is enlightenment?

Immanuel Kant's questions: What can I know? Kant recognized the possibility of knowledge, but at the same time limited this possibility to human abilities, that is, it is possible to know, but not everything. What should I do? One must act according to the moral law; you need to develop your mental and physical strength. One must act according to the moral law; you need to develop your mental and physical strength. What can I hope for? You can rely on yourself and on state laws. What is a person? Man is the highest value.

Kant on the end of existence Kant published his article in the Berlin Monthly (June 1794). The idea of the end of all things is presented in this article as the moral end of humanity. The article talks about the ultimate goal of human existence. Three options for the end: natural according to divine wisdom; supernatural for reasons incomprehensible to people; unnatural due to human indiscretion, incorrect understanding of the final goal.

Introduction

Immanuel Kant is one of the outstanding thinkers of the 18th century. The influence of his scientific and philosophical ideas went far beyond the era in which he lived.

Kant's philosophy began in Germany a direction known as classical German idealism. This movement played a major role in the development of world philosophical thought.

The purpose of the work: to consider the pre-critical and critical periods of I. Kant’s work, also to consider socio-political views and determine the historical significance of his philosophy.

1.Biography

The founder of German classical idealism is considered to be Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804), a German (Prussian) philosopher, professor at the University of Königsberg. Born into a poor family of a saddlemaker. The boy was named after Saint Emmanuel; translated, this Hebrew name means “God with us.” Under the care of doctor of theology Franz Albert Schulz, who noticed talent in Immanuel, Kant graduated from the prestigious Friedrichs-Collegium gymnasium and then entered the University of Königsberg. Due to the death of his father, he is unable to complete his studies and, in order to support his family, Kant becomes a home teacher for 10 years. It was at this time, in 1747-1755, that he developed and published his cosmogonic hypothesis of the origin of the Solar system from the original nebula, which has not lost its relevance to this day.

In 1755, Kant defended his dissertation and received his doctorate, which finally gave him the right to teach at the university. Forty years of teaching began. Kant’s natural science and philosophical research is complemented by “political science” opuses: in the treatise “Towards Eternal Peace” he first prescribed cultural and philosophical foundations the future unification of Europe into a family of enlightened nations, arguing that “enlightenment is the courage to use one’s own reason.”

In 1770, at the age of 46, he was appointed professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Königsberg, where until 1797 he taught an extensive range of disciplines - philosophical, mathematical, physical.

Being in poor health, Kant subjected his life to a strict regime, which allowed him to outlive all his friends. His accuracy in following the schedule became the talk of the town even among punctual Germans and gave rise to many sayings and anecdotes. He was not married, they say that when he wanted to have a wife, he could not support her, and when he could, he did not want to...

Kant was buried at the eastern corner of the north side Cathedral Koenigsberg in the professorial crypt, a chapel was erected over his grave. In 1924, on the occasion of Kant's 200th anniversary, the chapel was replaced by a new structure, in the form of an open columned hall, strikingly different in style from the cathedral itself.

All of I. Kant’s work can be divided into two large periods:

Subcritical (until the early 70s of the 18th century);

Critical (early 70s of the 18th century and until 1804).

During the pre-critical period, I. Kant's philosophical interest was aimed at problems of natural science and nature.

In a later, critical period, Kant's interest shifted to questions of the activity of the mind, knowledge, the mechanism of knowledge, the boundaries of knowledge, logic, ethics, social philosophy. The critical period received its name in connection with the name of three fundamental philosophical works Kanta:

"Critique of Pure Reason";

"Critique of Practical Reason";

"Critique of Judgment".

2. Subcritical period

The most important problems philosophical studies Kant subcritical period were problems of existence, nature, natural science. Kant's innovation in the study of these problems lies in the fact that he was one of the first philosophers who, when considering these problems, paid great attention to development problem.

Kant's philosophical conclusions were revolutionary for his era:

The solar system arose from a large initial cloud of matter particles rarefied in space as a result of the rotation of this cloud, which became possible due to the movement and interaction (attraction, repulsion, collision) of its constituent particles.

Nature has its history in time (beginning and end), and is not eternal and unchanging;

Nature is in constant change and development;

Movement and rest are relative;

All life on earth, including humans, is the result of natural biological evolution.

At the same time, Kant’s ideas bear the imprint of the worldview of that time:

Mechanical laws are not initially inherent in matter, but have their own external cause;

This external cause (primary principle) is God. Despite this, Kant's contemporaries believed that his discoveries (especially about the emergence of the solar system and the biological evolution of man) were comparable in importance to the discovery of Copernicus (the rotation of the Earth around the Sun).

3. Critical period

The basis of Kant's philosophical studies critical period(early 70s of the 18th century and until 1804) lies problem of cognition.

3.1. Critique of Pure Reason

IN his book "Critique of Pure Reason" Kant defends the idea agnosticism- the impossibility of knowing the surrounding reality.

Most philosophers before Kant saw as the main cause of the difficulties of cognition precisely the object of cognitive activity - being, the surrounding world, which contains many mysteries that have not been solved for thousands of years. Kant puts forward a hypothesis according to which the cause of difficulties in cognition is not the surrounding reality - an object, but the subject of cognitive activity - a person, or rather, his mind.

The cognitive capabilities (abilities) of the human mind are limited (that is, the mind cannot do everything). As soon as the human mind, with its arsenal of cognitive means, tries to go beyond its own limits (possibilities) of knowledge, it encounters insoluble contradictions. These insoluble contradictions, of which Kant discovered four, Kant called antinomies.

The first antinomy - LIMITED SPACE
The world has a beginning in time and is limited in space	The world has no beginning in time and is limitless.
The second antinomy - SIMPLE AND COMPLEX
There are only simple elements and that which consists of simple ones.	There is nothing simple in the world.
Third antinomy - FREEDOM AND CAUSALITY
There is not only causality according to the laws of nature, but also freedom.	Freedom doesn't exist. Everything in the world happens due to strict causality according to the laws of nature.
Fourth Antinomy - THE PRESENCE OF GOD
There is God - an unconditionally necessary being, the cause of all things.	There is no god. There is no absolutely necessary being - the cause of everything that exists

With the help of reason, one can logically prove both opposite positions of antinomies at the same time - reason comes to a dead end. The presence of antinomies, according to Kant, is proof of the presence of limits to the cognitive abilities of the mind.

Also in the “Critique of Pure Reason” I. Kant classifies knowledge itself as a result of cognitive activity and distinguishes three concepts characterizing knowledge:

A posteriori knowledge;

A priori knowledge;

"thing in itself".

A posteriori knowledge- the knowledge that a person receives as a result of experience. This knowledge can only be speculative, but not reliable, since each statement taken from this type of knowledge must be verified in practice, and such knowledge is not always true. For example, a person knows from experience that all metals melt, but theoretically there may be metals that are not subject to melting; or “all swans are white,” but sometimes black ones can also be found in nature, therefore, experimental (empirical, a posteriori) knowledge can misfire, does not have complete reliability and cannot claim universality.

A priori knowledge- pre-experimental, that is, that which exists in the mind from the beginning and does not require any experimental proof. For example: “All bodies are extended,” “ Human life flows in time,” “All bodies have mass.” Any of these provisions is obvious and absolutely reliable, both with and without experimental verification. It is impossible, for example, to meet a body that has no size or without mass, the life of a living person, flowing outside of time. Only a priori (pre-experimental) knowledge is absolutely reliable and reliable, has the qualities of universality and necessity.

It should be noted: Kant’s theory of a priori (initially true) knowledge was completely logical in Kant’s era, but discovered by A. Einstein in the mid-twentieth century. the theory of relativity called it into question.

"The Thing in Itself"- one of the central concepts of Kant’s entire philosophy. “The thing in itself” is the inner essence of a thing that will never be known by reason.

3.2.Scheme of the cognitive process

Kant highlights diagram of the cognitive process, according to which:

The outside world initially influences (“affification”) to human senses;

Human sensory organs receive affected images outside world in the form of sensations;

Human consciousness brings disparate images and sensations received by the senses into a system, as a result of which a holistic picture of the surrounding world appears in the human mind;

A complete picture of the surrounding world that arises in the mind on the basis of sensations is just an image of the external world visible to the mind and feelings, which has nothing in common with the real world;

Real world, the images of which are perceived by the mind and feelings, is "a thing in itself"- a substance that absolutely cannot be understood by reason;

The human mind can only cognize the images of a huge variety of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world - “things in themselves”, but not their inner essence.

Thus, when In cognition, the mind encounters two impenetrable boundaries:

Own (internal to the mind) boundaries, beyond which

insoluble contradictions arise - antinomies;

External boundaries are the inner essence of things in themselves.

Human consciousness itself (pure reason), which receives signals - images from unknowable “things in themselves” - the surrounding world, also, according to Kant, has its own structure, which includes:

Forms of sensuality;

Forms of reason;

Forms of the mind.

Sensuality- first level of consciousness. Forms of sensuality - space And time. Thanks to sensuality, consciousness initially systematizes sensations, placing them in space and time.

Reason- the next level of consciousness. Forms of reason - categories- extremely general concepts with the help of which further comprehension and systematization of initial sensations located in the “coordinate system” of space and time occurs. (Examples of categories are quantity, quality, possibility, impossibility, necessity, etc.)

Intelligence- the highest level of consciousness. The forms of the mind are final higher ideas, for example: the idea of God; the idea of the soul; the idea of the essence of the world, etc.

Philosophy, according to Kant, is the science of given (higher) ideas.

3.3. The doctrine of categories

Kant's great service to philosophy is that he put forward doctrine of categories(translated from Greek - statements) - extremely general concepts with the help of which you can describe and to which you can reduce everything that exists. (That is, there are no things or phenomena of the surrounding world that do not have features characterized by these categories.) Kant identifies twelve such categories and divides them into four classes of three in each.

Data classes are:

Quantity;

Quality;

Attitude;

Modality.

(That is, everything in the world has quantity, quality, relationships, modality.)

Quantities - unity, plurality, wholeness;

Qualities - reality, negation, limitation;

Relationships - substantiality (inherence) and accident (independence); cause and investigation; interaction;

Modality - possibility and impossibility, existence and non-existence, necessity and chance.

the first two categories of each of the four classes are opposite characteristics of the properties of the class, the third is their synthesis. For example, the extreme opposite characteristics of quantity are unity and multitude, their synthesis is integrity; qualities - reality and negation (unreality), their synthesis - limitation, etc.

According to Kant, with the help of categories - extremely general characteristics of everything that exists - the mind carries out its activity: it arranges the chaos of initial sensations along the “shelves of the mind”, thanks to which ordered mental activity is possible.

3.4. Critique of Practical Reason

Along with “pure reason” - consciousness that carries out mental activity and cognition, Kant identifies "practical reason" by which he understands morality and also criticizes it in his other key work - “Critique of Practical Reason”.

Main questions "Critics of Practical Reason":

What should be the morality?

What is moral (moral) behavior of a person? Reflecting on these questions, Kant comes to the following conclusions:

pure morality- a virtuous social consciousness recognized by all, which the individual perceives as his own;

Between pure morality and real life(in the actions, motives, interests of people) there is a strong contradiction;

Morality and human behavior must be independent of any external conditions and must obey only moral law.

I. Kant formulated as follows moral law which has a supreme and unconditional character, and called it categorical imperative:“Act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be a principle of universal legislation.”

Currently, the moral law (categorical imperative), formulated by Kant, is understood as follows:

A person must act in such a way that his actions are a model for everyone;

A person should treat another person (like himself, a thinking being and a unique personality) only as an end, and not as a means.

3.5. Criticism of judgment

In his third book of the critical period - "Critique of Judgment"- Kant puts forward the idea of universal expediency:

Expediency in aesthetics (a person is endowed with abilities that he must use as successfully as possible in various spheres of life and culture);

Purposefulness in nature (everything in nature has its own meaning - in the organization of living nature, the organization of inanimate nature, the structure of organisms, reproduction, development);

Purposefulness of the spirit (the presence of God).

4. Socio-political views

Socio-political views of I. Kant:

The philosopher believed that man is endowed with an inherently evil nature;

He saw the salvation of man in moral education and strict adherence to the moral law ( categorical imperative);

He was a supporter of the spread of democracy and legal order - firstly, in each individual society; secondly, in relations between states and peoples;

Condemned wars as the most serious delusion and crime of mankind;

Believed that the future would inevitably come " upper world"- wars will either be prohibited by law or become economically unprofitable.

5. Historical significance of Kant's philosophy

Historical meaning Kant's philosophy is that it was:

An explanation based on science (Newtonian mechanics) is given for the emergence of the Solar System (from a rotating nebula of elements discharged in space);

The idea has been put forward about the existence of limits to the cognitive ability of the human mind (antinomy, “thing in itself”);

Twelve categories are displayed - the maximum general concepts, which constitute the framework of thinking;

The idea of democracy and legal order has been put forward, both in each individual society and in international relations;

Wars are condemned, “eternal peace” is predicted in the future, based on the economic unprofitability of wars and their legal prohibition.

I. Kant, with his works on philosophy, carried out a kind of revolution in philosophy. Calling his philosophy transcendental, he emphasizes the need to first undertake a critical analysis of our cognitive abilities in order to clarify their nature and capabilities.

This work examined the philosophy of I. Kant.

The most important problems of I. Kant's philosophical research in the pre-critical period were problems of being, nature, and natural science.

During the critical period, I. Kant wrote fundamental philosophical works, which earned the scientist the reputation of one of the outstanding thinkers of the 18th century and had a huge influence on the further development of world philosophical thought:

· “Critique of Pure Reason” (1781) - epistemology (epistemology)

· "Critique of Practical Reason" (1788) - ethics

· “Critique of Judgment” (1790) - aesthetics

1. Gaidenko P.P. The problem of time in Kant: time as an a priori form of sensibility and the timelessness of things in themselves. Questions of philosophy. 2003

2. Gulyga A. Kant. Ser. The life of wonderful people. M., 2003

3. Cassirer E. The Life and Teachings of Kant. St. Petersburg, ed. "University book", 2005

“History of Philosophy” - Ways of approaching the good. Main characteristics of German classical philosophy. Philosophical knowledge of Ancient Greece. The type of worldview is theocentric. Anti-feudal orientation. Philosophy of the New Age 17-19 centuries. History of philosophy. The task of the philosopher in India. The type of worldview is cosmocentrism.

"Philosophy of the 20th century" - Shadow. Freud's main conclusion. Western philosophy of the 20th century, its main directions. The structure of the human psyche (according to S. Freud). The human psyche is an arena of constant struggle. A person. Neopositivism. Neo-Thomism proclaims the high importance of the human personality. S. Freud's teaching on the unconscious. Hermeneutics.