Download presentation on philosophy. Presentation for the course philosophy main sections of the course
Philosophers
Slides: 18 Words: 300 Sounds: 0 Effects: 0Ideas of great teachers in the practice of teachers of the humanities. Table of contents. Philosophers of antiquity. Hippocrates Aristotle. Socrates. Jan Komensky. K.D. Ushinsky. Teaching is work full of activity and thought. Menu. Yu.K.Babansky N.R.Talyzina G.M.Erdniev V.F.Shatalov S.N.Lysenko I.P.Volkov. Scientists are didactics and teachers are innovators. Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670). V.P.Bespalko M.V.Klarin S.M.Mavrin B.T.Likhachev M.N.Skatkin A.K.Markova G.I.Shchukina. Teachers and psychologists. S.T.Shatsky (1878 – 1934). A.S. Makarenko (1888 – 1939). Education is a handicraft business, and among handicraft industries it is the most backward. - Philosophers.pptx
Philosophers and thinkers
Slides: 87 Words: 8003 Sounds: 0 Effects: 17Thinkers, philosophers, scientists. Examples of tasks. Match the authors with the titles of their works. Fill in the blank in the row. Read the definitions of concepts you know from your social studies course. Write down these concepts. Correspondence between the name of the scientist and the ideas expressed by him. What (who) is extra in each row. Label the illustrations, indicating who is depicted in them. Three lists. Fill in the blanks in the poetry passages. Write down their numbers and indicate next to the name of the thinker. Try to complete sentences that belong to wise people. “Teacher of all virtues”, “the highest consolation of tormented souls.” - Philosophers and thinkers.pptx
Aristotle's philosophy
Slides: 46 Words: 2391 Sounds: 0 Effects: 482Fundamentals of philosophy. Ontology. Basic works. Philosophy of Aristotle. Criticism of Plato's theory of ideas. Unscientific nature of basic concepts. Eidos of non-natural things. Eidos of negations. Eidos of the transitory. Eidos of relationships. Predication of eidos. Third person. Metaphysics. Doubling reality. Multiplying reality. The separation of the essence of a thing from the thing itself. Fixed eidos and the world of formation. Existence and its types. Existence is the subject of one science. Suffering. Essence. Creature. Quantity. Components. Quality. Attitude. Place. On the square. Time. Aristotle's ontology. - Philosophy of Aristotle.ppt
Berdyaev
Slides: 17 Words: 1915 Sounds: 0 Effects: 34Personalism of N. A. Berdyaev; "Paradoxical Ethics". Russian philosophy. Family N.A. Berdyaev was born into a noble family. Education. Berdyaev was raised at home, then in the Kiev Cadet Corps. He entered the Faculty of Science at Kyiv University, and a year later entered the Faculty of Law. In 1913, he wrote an anticlerical article in defense of the Athonite monks. Basic principles of philosophy. The book “The Experience of Eschatological Metaphysics” most expresses my metaphysics. My philosophy is a philosophy of spirit. I affirm the primacy of freedom over being. Being is secondary, there is already determination, necessity, there is already an object. - Berdyaev.pptx
Philosophy of Berdyaev
Slides: 14 Words: 680 Sounds: 0 Effects: 0Philosophy of technology. Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev. The meaning of the story. Article "Man and Machine". Three stages of human development. Concepts of organism and organization. Meaning. Substitution of culture. Human. An appendage and a cog of the industrial and economic machine. Loss of individuality. The fate of humanity. - Philosophy Berdyaev.ppsx
Bruno
Slides: 13 Words: 1201 Sounds: 0 Effects: 28Giordano Bruno. 1548–1600. Giordano Bruno spent seven years in the Holy Inquisition in Venice and Rome. Bruno had an amazing talent for making enemies for himself. He considered himself a citizen of the world, the son of the Sun. In his philosophical views he gravitated towards mysticism. In his works, Bruno referred to the name of Hermes Trismegistus. Philosophy. Mnemonics. Engraving illustrating one of Giordano Bruno's mnemonic devices. The anthrovolts depict the four classical elements: earth, air, fire and water. Like Raymond Lull, Bruno was an expert in the art of memory. Trial and execution. Bruno's last words were: "I die a martyr voluntarily." - Bruno.pptx
Kant
Slides: 17 Words: 779 Sounds: 0 Effects: 0Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804). Prepared by student of group 41 Sidorkina Vasilisa. German philosopher, founder of German classical philosophy. The main philosophical work is the Critique of Pure Reason. Philosophy of I. Kant. The initial problem for Kant is the question “How is pure knowledge possible?” 2 levels of formation (activity) of the subject, identified in experience: subjective forms of feeling - space and time. Here the decisive role is played by imagination and rational categorical schematism. Categories of reason: 1. Categories of quantity: Unity Multitude integrity 2. Categories of quality: Reality Denial Limitation. - Kant.ppt
Confucius
Slides: 20 Words: 529 Sounds: 1 Effects: 62Confucius. Biography. Confucius was born in 551 BC in the kingdom of Lu (China). Teacher from the Kun clan. Life... 17 years... Sage. Confucianism. Learning Center. The idea of submission from top to bottom is one of the main ideas of Confucian ethics. A new movement in the culture of China and the whole world. The family was considered the core of society. Hence the constant trend towards family growth. Taoism. Ideal rules. Heritage. The sage died in 479 BC. Temple. A majestic temple was erected in honor of the great philosopher in China. Greatness. Worked on the project: Nikita Samokhvalov development of slides, organization of information. - Confucius.pptx
Confucianism
Slides: 11 Words: 378 Sounds: 0 Effects: 28The spiritual world of ancient societies. Confucianism is one of the leading ideological movements in Ancient China. Confucianism raised its followers in the spirit of respect for the existing order, according to the law of “Zhen” sent down by heaven. According to Confucius, a person's destiny is determined by "heaven", and the fact that people are divided into "noble" and "low" cannot be changed. The younger one must obey the older one without complaint. The leading trend in Confucianism was the justification of the dominance of the privileged classes and the praise of the “heavenly will.” Fragments of the book "Lunyu". A noble man blames himself, a small man blames others. - Confucianism.ppt
Philosophy of Confucianism
Slides: 26 Words: 1004 Sounds: 0 Effects: 51Confucianism. Philosophical teaching. Philosophy. Spreading. Officials. Creator. The power of the gaze of an ancient thinker. Creating a harmonious society. Human beginning. Is it true. Custom. Common sense. Sincerity. The religious side of Confucianism. Distribution in China. Chinese. Written monuments. The Four Books. Fool. A person can make a great path. Shanghai-Wenmiao. Temple of Confucius. Ideas of Confucianism. Teachings of Confucius. - Philosophy of Confucianism.pptx
Socrates
Slides: 20 Words: 3410 Sounds: 0 Effects: 43Philosophy of Socrates. The birth of a scientist. Socrates. Socrates was an original man. Martyr. People. Ancient society. Plague. Standard of morality. Powerful force. Political life. Moral philosophy. Eros. Death of Socrates. Sayings of Socrates. Highest wisdom. Interesting stories. Three important sieves. Basic questions of philosophy. - Socrates.ppt
Vladimir Solovyov
Slides: 16 Words: 2030 Sounds: 0 Effects: 28Vladimir Solovyov. The greatest Russian philosopher. Biography. Criticism of abstract principles. The idea of unity. Philosophy. Solovyov's position. The beginning of diversity. Principles of ontology. Organic logic. Human. Cognition. Incompatible trends. - Vladimir Solovyov.ppt
Strakhov
Slides: 28 Words: 1740 Sounds: 0 Effects: 88N.N. Strakhov. N.N. Strakh. Having retired in 1861, he devoted himself entirely to literary activity. In the 60s he collaborated in the magazines of the brothers M.M. and F.M. Dostoevsky. Order of Anna 2nd class. Order of Vladimir, 3rd degree. Order of Stanislav 2nd class. Pushkin medal. N. N. Strakhov was a widely educated person and a versatile thinker. LIFETIME EDITIONS N.N. STRAKHOVA From the library-museum collection. For the first time correspondence of I.S. Aksakov and N.N. Insurance is published in full. - Strakhov.ppt
Schopenhauer
Slides: 10 Words: 671 Sounds: 0 Effects: 0Philosopher of pessimism. Arthur Schopenhauer. He neglected basic goods. Fluent in German. Schopenhauer was a misogynist. Mention of. He gravitated toward German romanticism. Analysis of the human will. The main philosophical work. The philosopher wrote nine works. -
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STAGES OF FORMATION OF PHILOSOPHY Primitive culture culture of all ancient civilizations Greece, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Judea, China, India Greece, China, India Mythology Pre-philosophy Philosophy
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Classification of philosophy according to historical criteria Epoch Ancient world mid-1st millennium BC – 476 (collapse of the Western Roman Empire) Middle Ages 476 – mid-14th century. Renaissance, mid-14th – early 17th centuries.
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Modern era XVII – XXI centuries. The beginning of modern times (XVII century - 1688) Age of Enlightenment (1688 - 1789) German classical philosophy (1770 - 1850) Modern philosophy XIX - XXI centuries.
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The word “philosophy” arose from two ancient Greek words: “love” and “wisdom”. Literally translated, “love of wisdom” (or wisdom, as it was previously called in Rus'). It is generally accepted that philosophy arose in the 6th century BC. in Ancient Greece based on mythology. According to legend, Pythagoras was the first to use the word “philosopher” (“lovers of wisdom”). He said that wisdom is inherent only in the gods, and all that a person can do is strive for wisdom and love it. Wisdom is the knowledge of the most essential things in the world, and therefore the most important for human life.
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At its inception, philosophy included all scientific knowledge; those. it was the science of everything (“the science of sciences”). Later, independent separate scientific disciplines began to form: in the 4th century. BC. In ancient Greece, logic was formed as a theoretical discipline; by the 2nd century. BC. Mathematics (Euclidean geometry and arithmetic), astronomy (with astrology), and later philology and some others were formed. In the 19th-20th centuries. In Marxism, on the basis of Hegelian philosophy, the following definition of philosophy was formed: Philosophy is the science of the most general laws of development of nature, society and human thinking. The origins of philosophy are in the inquisitiveness of the active mind. The great ancient Greek thinkers Plato and Aristotle believed that its beginning is in surprise, stimulating deep thought about what seemed self-evident.
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The subject of philosophy is the range of problems that it studies: The range of problems (issues) classified as philosophical has changed with the development of human culture, scientific knowledge and practices: What is the world we live in? Is there an unchangeable beginning of the world or is it in eternal becoming? Is the world finite or infinite? Single or multiple? Who is a person and what is his essence? What is the meaning of his life? Is he free or not free? Can a person influence the course of events? Are there any objective laws of it? What is truth, beauty, goodness, justice?
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The main sections of philosophy are ontology (Greek “ontos” - “being”, and “logos” - teaching) a section that studies being as such, being in its pure form; epistemology (Greek “gnosis” - “knowledge”, “logos” - teaching) is a section that studies the forms and laws of knowledge; philosophical anthropology (Greek “anthropos” - “man”, “logos” - teaching) a section that studies man as a thinking being; praxeology - a section that studies activity; axiology – the doctrine of values;
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Worldview is a holistic view of the world and man’s place in it. Worldview The main parts of the worldview: Worldview – emotional and sensory image of the world; Worldview is a rational interpretation of the world; Worldview is a holistic image of the world;
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In the history of mankind, there are three main forms of worldview: mythology; religion; philosophy.
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Mythology is a form of social consciousness, the worldview of an ancient society, which combines both fantastic and realistic perception of the surrounding reality. Myths try to answer the following basic questions: the origin of the Universe, Earth and man; explanation of natural phenomena; life, fate, death of a person; human activity and achievements; issues of honor, duty, ethics and morality. The features of the myth are: humanization of nature; the presence of fantastic gods, interaction with humans; lack of abstract thoughts (reflection); the practical focus of the myth on solving specific life problems (economy, protection from the elements, etc.); monotony and surface of mythological subjects.
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Religion is a form of worldview based on the belief in the presence of fantastic, supernatural forces that influence human life and the world around us. Religion explores the same questions as myth: the origin of the Universe, the Earth, life on Earth, man; explanation of natural phenomena; actions, fate of a person; moral and ethical problems. The main world religions are: Christianity; Islam; Buddhism. The largest and most widespread national religions in the world: Shintoism; Hinduism; Judaism. In addition to worldviews, religion has a number of other functions: unifying (consolidates society); cultural (promotes the spread of a certain culture); moral and educational (cultivates in society the ideals of love for one's neighbor, compassion, honesty, tolerance, decency, duty).
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Philosophy is a special, scientific-theoretical type of worldview. The philosophical worldview differs from the religious and mythological in that it is: based on knowledge (and not on faith or fiction); reflexively (thought is directed towards itself); logical (has internal unity and system); relies on clear concepts and categories. Philosophy as a worldview has gone through three main stages of its evolution: cosmocentrism; theocentrism; anthropocentrism. Cosmocentrism is a philosophical worldview, which is based on an explanation of the surrounding world, natural phenomena through the power, omnipotence, infinity of external forces - the Cosmos, and according to which everything that exists depends on the Cosmos and cosmic cycles (this philosophy was characteristic of Ancient India, Ancient China, other countries of the East, as well as Ancient Greece). Theocentrism - type philosophical worldview, which is based on the explanation of all things through the dominance of an inexplicable, supernatural force - God (was common in medieval Europe). Anthropocentrism is a type of philosophical worldview, at the center of which is the problem of man (Europe of the Renaissance, modern and contemporary times, modern philosophical schools).
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Main trends in ontology In philosophy, over its long history, a large number of different teachings, various groups, schools or movements have been formed. In ontology, the most important are two classifications based on the characteristics of the principles of being: by quantity and quality.
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Classification of philosophical teachings according to the number of principles. Dualism - philosophical doctrine, which recognizes the existence of two principles of existence (most often - material and ideal). The first consistent dualist is Aristotle. Dualists also include Descartes and Kant. Pluralism is a philosophical doctrine that recognizes the existence of many (more than two) principles of existence. Pluralism was mainly found in the philosophy of the Ancient World: for example, Empedocles recognized four elements (Earth, Fire, Water, Air) and two forces (Love and Enmity) as the principles. Monism is a philosophical doctrine that recognizes the existence of only one principle of being. Monists are all consistent materialists (Democritus, Diderot, Holbach, Marx) and all consistent idealists (Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Hegel).
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The terms “monism”, “dualism”, “pluralism” in ontology, epistemology and social philosophy Based on the quality of the principles, they distinguish between materialism and idealism. Classification of philosophical teachings according to the quality of the first principles Materialism Idealism Objective idealism Subjective idealism Vulgar materialism In ontology Characteristics of the number of first principles of being In epistemology Characteristics of the number of sources of knowledge In social philosophy Characteristics of the number of leading political forces or social factors
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Materialism is a direction in philosophy, whose supporters believed that in the relationship between matter and consciousness, matter is primary (Democritus). Therefore: matter really exists; matter exists independently of consciousness (that is, it exists independently of thinking beings and whether anyone thinks about it or not); matter is an independent substance - it does not need anything other than itself for its existence; matter exists and develops according to its internal laws; consciousness (spirit) is the property (mode) of highly organized matter to reflect itself (matter); consciousness is not an independent substance existing along with matter; consciousness is determined by matter (being). There is a special direction in materialism - vulgar materialism. Its representatives (Focht, Moleschott) absolutize the role of matter, ignore consciousness itself as an essence and its ability to reciprocally influence matter. It is believed that the brain secretes thoughts just like the liver secretes bile.
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Idealism is a movement in philosophy in which a certain ideal essence is recognized as the beginning of being (Plato). There are two major currents within idealism.
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Objective idealism is a movement in philosophy in which a certain ideal essence that exists objectively is recognized as the beginning of existence, i.e. outside and independent of human consciousness (God, the Absolute, the Idea, the World Mind, etc.). Objective idealism originated and developed in many schools of the Ancient world: in India (all orthodox schools), in China (Confucianism, Taoism), in Greece and Rome (Pythagoras, Plato, Neoplatonists, etc.), and then in the Middle Ages, Renaissance and New time. It found its consistent and complete form in German classical philosophy (Hegel).
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Subjective idealism is a movement in philosophy in which human consciousness, the human “I”, is recognized as the beginning of existence. Subjective idealism received its most consistent embodiment in Buddhist philosophy, which arose in Ancient India. In European philosophy, subjective idealism mainly developed in modern times. Berkeley is considered to be the founder of European subjective idealism; Hume, Kant, supporters of existentialism and phenomenology are usually attributed to this movement.
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Pantheism, hylozoism and deism. There are a number of important trends in philosophy that, while remaining within the framework of monism, occupy an intermediate position between idealism and materialism. Hylozoism is a philosophical doctrine that affirms the animation of both living and inanimate nature. Hylozoism arose already in antiquity, for example, it took place in the teachings of Thales, Heraclitus, the Stoics, etc.
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Pantheism is a movement in philosophy in which God (the ideal principle) and nature (the material principle) are identified: there is no God outside of nature, but there is no nature outside of God. Pantheism arose in the Renaissance, its ideas were developed by Nikolai Cusansky, Giordano Bruno, and in modern times pantheistic ideas can be found in Schelling, Hegel, Solovyov, etc.
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Deism is a movement in philosophy in which God is recognized as the creator of the world, but having created the world and put certain laws into it, God no longer interferes in the affairs of the world: the world exists according to its own laws. Strictly speaking, deism is a special variety of objective idealism, but at the same time it was also a transitional stage on the path from objective idealism to materialism. Deism arose in the 17th century. and became especially popular during the Enlightenment. The origins of deism were Descartes, Newton, Locke, and the most prominent deists included Voltaire, Rousseau, Kant, and Lomonosov.
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Cosmos - translated from ancient Greek means “order”. In ancient philosophy it was opposed to Chaos as disorder, confusion. Cosmology is the study of the structure of the world as it currently exists. Cosmogony is the doctrine of the origin of the world, the process of its formation, which led to its modern state. Cosmogenesis is the very process of formation and formation of the world. Speaking about ontology, you need to know a few more of the following terms and related concepts.
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Methods and directions in philosophy For ontology, ideas about the essence of being are essential: is being unchanging, constant, motionless, or changeable and mobile? Dialectics is the doctrine of the most general natural connections of being, its development and formation; two central ideas of dialectics: a) the interrelation of all phenomena; b) continuous, endless, based on the contradictions inherent in existence itself, the development of the world. The founder was the Greek philosopher Heraclitus (Everything flows, everything changes). The largest representatives: Schelling, Hegel, Marx, Bergson. However, development itself can be interpreted in different ways: as development “in a vicious circle” (Schelling, Hegel) and as an endless forward movement (Marx, Bergson).
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Metaphysics in trans. from other Greek - “after physics”. A philosophical doctrine that denies the development of the world as endless self-development. A method opposite to dialectics, in which objects are considered: separately, as in themselves (and not from the point of view of their interconnectedness); static (the fact of constant changes, self-movement, development is ignored); unambiguously (the search for absolute truth is carried out, no attention is paid to contradictions, and their unity is not realized).
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Agnosticism is a movement in philosophy in which the world is recognized as fundamentally unknowable. The most ancient European forms of agnosticism include sophistry and skepticism; in modern times, agnosticism was developed by Berkeley, Hume, and Kant. Agnostics were most often subjective idealists, while materialists and objective idealists usually recognized the knowability of the world. Relativism (from the Latin “relativus” - relative) is a direction in philosophy that elevates the relativity of all knowledge into a principle, i.e. its incompleteness and conditionality, and on this basis denying any possibility of achieving objective truth. The foundations of relativism were laid by sophists and skeptics; in modern times, relativism developed in positivism.
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Rationalism (from the Latin “ratio” - reason) is a direction in philosophy that recognizes reason as the basis of knowledge, the main instrument of knowledge, as well as the criterion of truth. The foundations of rationalism were laid in ancient philosophy (Parmenides, Plato, etc.), but as a philosophical direction, rationalism was formed in modern times; its largest representatives are Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz. Empiricism is a method and direction in cognition, according to which the basis of the cognitive process and knowledge is experience obtained primarily as a result of sensory cognition. (“There is nothing in thoughts that was not previously in experience and sensory sensations.” F. Bacon) In a nutshell, the difference lies in the degree of mediation. Sensualism relies directly on our senses of sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste. He believes that everything we can know is limited by our sensations. That is, the sensualist’s statement is approximately the following: “I know that sugar is sweet, because when I taste it, I feel the sweetness.” They are criticized for the fact that feelings are quite deceptive and sometimes depend on too many factors, and therefore cannot serve as a sufficient basis for any conclusions. Empiricism is a little more abstract, and is based on the so-called sensory experience. That is, these are not the sensations themselves, but the experience that we gain through perception. An empiricist is not one who considers experience to be the only possible source of knowledge, but one who believes that experience must be prior to logical reasoning about the nature of things. An empiricist’s statement: “I see no difference between these two green balls, so they are the same.” The line between these directions is quite thin, but it exists. Sensualism can only provide knowledge about the properties of things, while empiricism can already build logical connections based on experience.
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Irrationalism (from the Latin “irrationalis” - unreasonable, unconscious) is a direction in philosophy in which the cognitive power of reason is limited or even denied, the essence of being is understood as inaccessible to reason, fundamentally different from it. Most often, subjective idealistic teachings belong to irrationalism, for example, philosophy of life (Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Bergson), existentialism (Sartre, Camus, Heidegger, etc.) and a number of others. Sensualism (from the Latin “sensus” - feeling) is a direction in philosophy in which feelings (sensations) are recognized as the main source of knowledge, and they are also considered the criterion of truth. Sensualism seeks to show that all knowledge is derived from the data of the senses (“there is nothing in the mind that was not previously contained in the senses”). The foundations of sensationalism were laid in antiquity (Democritus, Epicurus), but as a special direction, sensationalism was formed in modern times (materialistic sensationalism - Hobbes, Locke, Diderot, etc., idealistic sensationalism - Berkeley, Hume, etc.)
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Hermeneutics (ancient Greek - “the art of interpretation”) is the theory of interpretation and understanding of texts, including texts of classical antiquity. Sophistry is a method based on deducing from false, but skillfully and incorrectly presented judgments, a new premise, logically true, but false in meaning. Sophistry was widespread in Ancient Greece, its goal was not to obtain the truth, but to win an argument, to prove “anything to anyone,” and was used as a technique of oratory.
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Dogmatism is the perception of the surrounding world through the prism of dogmas - once and for all accepted beliefs, unprovable, “given from above” and of an absolute nature. This method was inherent in medieval theological philosophy.
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Features of philosophical knowledge: has a complex structure (includes ontology, epistemology, logic, etc.); is of an extremely general, theoretical nature; contains basic, fundamental ideas and concepts that underlie other sciences; largely subjective - it bears the imprint of the personality and worldview of individual philosophers; is a set of objective knowledge and values, moral ideals of its time, and is influenced by the era; studies not only the subject of knowledge, but also the mechanism of knowledge itself; has the quality of reflection - the turning of thought on itself (that is, knowledge is directed both at the world of objects and at itself); is strongly influenced by the doctrines developed by earlier philosophers; at the same time dynamic - constantly developing and updating; inexhaustible in its essence; limited by the cognitive abilities of a person (a cognizing subject), has insoluble, “eternal” problems (the origin of being, the primacy of matter or consciousness, the origin of life, the immortality of the soul, the presence or absence of God, his influence on the world), which today cannot be reliably resolved logically.
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The functions of philosophy are the main directions of application of philosophy, through which its goals, objectives, and purpose are realized. The worldview function contributes to the formation of the integrity of the picture of the world, ideas about its structure, the place of man in it, and the principles of interaction with the outside world. The methodological function develops the basic methods of understanding the surrounding reality. The mental-theoretical function is expressed in the fact that philosophy teaches conceptual thinking and theorizing - to extremely generalize the surrounding reality, to create mental-logical schemes, systems of the surrounding world.
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Epistemological - correct and reliable knowledge of the surrounding reality (that is, the mechanism of cognition). The role of the critical function is to question the surrounding world and existing knowledge, look for their new features, qualities, and reveal contradictions. The axiological function is to evaluate things, phenomena of the surrounding world from the point of view of various values - moral, ethical, social, ideological, etc.
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Social function - to explain society, the reasons for its emergence, evolution, current state, its structure, elements, driving forces; reveal contradictions, indicate ways to eliminate or mitigate them, and improve society. The educational and humanitarian function of philosophy is to cultivate humanistic values and ideals, instill them in people and society, help strengthen morality, help a person adapt to the world around him and find the meaning of life. The prognostic function is to predict development trends, the future of matter, consciousness, cognitive processes, man, nature and society, based on existing philosophical knowledge about the surrounding world and man, achievements of knowledge.
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Check yourself! Wisdom is: Experience accumulated over centuries Positive experience The most important thing in a person’s life
Section 1. Philosophy as a cultural phenomenon Questions: 1. The concept of worldview and its structure. Historical types of worldview (mythology, religion, philosophy). 2. The subject of philosophy and its historical dynamics. The structure of philosophical knowledge. 3. Functions of philosophy in culture.
Worldview is an extremely generalized system of a person’s views and ideas about the world around him, about himself and his place in this world; as well as a set of beliefs, views, assessments, ideals, norms that determine a person’s attitude to the world and act as guidelines and regulators of his behavior.
Levels of worldview Life-practical (everyday) level. 2. Theoretical level. Historical types of worldview 1. Mythology 1. 2. Religion 3. Philosophy
Mythology is a fantastic reflection of reality in the form of sensory and visual representations. Religion is a historical type of worldview in which the development of the world is carried out through its doubling into the earthly and the supernatural, and supernatural forces in the form of gods (or God) play a dominant role in the universe and in the lives of people.
Philosophy (translated from ancient Greek phileo - love, sophia - wisdom) - literally means love of wisdom. Philosophy appears in the 7th -6th centuries. BC e. in Ancient India, Ancient China, Ancient Greece. Philosophy arises from the need for a rational understanding of the world, as the first attempt to solve basic worldview problems by means of reason, that is, thinking based on concepts and judgments related to each other by certain logical laws.
Philosophy is a special form of knowledge of the world; form of social consciousness; a form of spiritual activity that develops a theoretical system of knowledge about the most general principles of existence and knowledge; about the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking; about a person’s relationship to the world and his place in this world.
The specificity of the subject of philosophy is that it is not fundamentally localized (that is, it is not limited to one area of reality). The specificity of the problem field of philosophy is determined by its desire to use rational and conceptual means to develop holistic, generalized, theoretical knowledge about the world and the place of man in it.
Basic philosophical problems 1. 2. 3. 4. The problem of the surrounding world, nature. The human problem. The problem of human existence in the “world of people”, associated with the solution of interpersonal and social relations. The problem of the relationship between the subjective and the objective, the ideal and the material. None of the identified philosophical problems can be completely isolated from one another. All problems complement each other, and at the same time, in various philosophical teachings, priority is given to one or another philosophical topic.
The “main question” of philosophy (the question of the relationship between spirit and nature, matter and consciousness) 2 sides: Ontological 2. Epistemological 1.
The ontological side of the main question of philosophy This is the question about the nature of the world, the question of what is determined by what in its existence, what depends on what in its existence, that is, what is primary in the world - spirit or nature, matter or consciousness? Depending on the answer to this question, 2 main directions have formed in the history of philosophy: materialism and idealism.
Materialists are those philosophers who consider nature and matter to be primary, existing independently of the spiritual, of consciousness. At the same time, consciousness is not denied, but is understood as a property, a function of the material, i.e. consciousness is secondary in relation to matter. Main representatives: Thales, Heraclitus, Democritus, Titus Lucretius Carus, Diderot, La Mettrie, Feuerbach, Lomonosov, Marx, Engels, etc.
Idealists hold the opposite point of view. They believe that the basis of the world is a spiritual essence in various forms: Idea, World Mind, Will. Idealists believe that consciousness exists independently, regardless of nature, matter, and human consciousness is considered as a form of manifestation of the world basis in man. Idealism exists in two main forms:
Objective idealism - recognizes the presence in the world of an impersonal spirit, consciousness, i.e., a certain spiritual principle that exists independently of nature, matter, and human consciousness (i.e., they exist objectively). Nature and man are created by an impersonal principle - God, Idea, etc. Main representatives: Plato, Hegel, F. Aquinas.
Subjective idealism - considers the world to be a product of the consciousness of an individual. According to him, we can only speak with certainty about the existence of my “I” and my feelings. “The world is a complex of my sensations.” Main representatives: Hume, Mach. Berkeley.
The epistemological side of the main question of philosophy is the question of the knowability of the world. This is the question of whether human thinking and consciousness is capable of cognizing nature, whether people can have a correct idea of the world, its laws, and whether, based on these ideas, they can change the world around them in the direction they need.
Depending on the solution to this issue, two main positions are distinguished: 1. the position of epistemological optimism 2. agnosticism. Epistemological optimists recognize the knowability of the world. Agnostics (from the Greek - unknowable) - hold the opposite opinion. They believe that the question of the truth of knowledge cannot be finally decided
Structure of philosophical knowledge 1. Ontology is the doctrine of existence, the origins of all things, the general principles and laws of the existence of nature, society and man. 2. Epistemology is a branch of philosophical knowledge in which the features of the process of human cognition of the external world, the problems of the nature of the cognitive process and its capabilities, the problem of the relationship between knowledge and reality are studied, and the conditions for the reliability and truth of knowledge are identified. 3. Axiology is a philosophical discipline that studies the nature of values, their hierarchy, structure, relationships, as well as their place in human existence.
4. Philosophical anthropology is the philosophical doctrine of man in the multidimensionality of his existence. 5. History of philosophy. Examines the historical development of philosophy. She studies the philosophical heritage of thinkers of the past, as well as modern authors. 6. Ethics is a philosophical discipline, the object of study of which is morality. Ethics clarifies the place of morality in the system of other social relations, explores its genesis, nature and internal structure.
7. Aesthetics – the study of beauty (beautiful). The main subject of reflection in aesthetics is the beautiful and the ugly. Aesthetic categories also include the sublime and base, comic, tragic, dramatic, etc. Aesthetics comprehends the manifestation of the aesthetic in life and art. It is closely related to the philosophy of art and art criticism. 8. Social philosophy is a section of philosophy that describes the specific features of society, its dynamics and prospects, the logic of social processes, the meaning and purpose of human history, and explores the problems of its driving forces. 9. Logic is the science of forms and laws of mental activity. All sections of philosophical knowledge are closely related to each other, although they are not reducible to each other.
Functions of philosophy in culture Worldview function 2. Methodological function 3. Prognostic and heuristic function 4. Critical function 5. Axiological function 6. Ideological function All functions are interconnected. Each of them presupposes the others, and, one way or another, includes them. 1.
Section 2. Main stages in the development of philosophy. 1. Philosophical thought of the Ancient East, Ancient India and Ancient China). 2. Ancient philosophy. The main problems of philosophy of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Philosophy of the New Age. German classical philosophy. Main schools and directions of Western philosophy XIX-XX centuries Traditions and features of Russian philosophy. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Philosophy of the Ancient East. Philosophy of Ancient India. The main periods in the development of Ancient Indian philosophy Vedic period 2. Epic period 1.
Vedic period of Ancient Indian philosophy The basis of philosophy was the Vedas - collections of hymns in honor of the gods. Structure of the Vedas: 1. 2. 3. 4. Samhitas (collection of songs, spells, hymns in honor of the gods, magic): a) Rigveda (collection of hymns in honor of numerous gods: Indra (god of thunder), Agni (god of fire), Surya (sun god), Vayu (wind god), etc.). b) Yajurveda (collection of sacrificial sayings). c) Samaveda (collection of sacrificial songs). d) Atharvaveda (songs-spells). Brahmanas (comments on rituals). Aranyakas (teachings for hermits). Upanishads (philosophical and religious complex).
The main ideas of the Upanishads: The fundamental principle of everything that exists is Brahman - the universal, impersonal soul, from which the whole world with all its elements arises. Brahman is one, devoid of any properties. In each human soul there is an unchanging essence - “Atman”, identical to Brahman, i.e. Brahman in a person manifests itself as Atman. Human life is an endless chain of rebirths (samsara). The future birth of a person depends on his lifestyle and is subject to the law of Karma (the law of retribution). One who has led a decent life can be born in the future as a representative of the highest varna (brahmana, kshatriya or vaishya). The one who led an unrighteous lifestyle in the next life will be born either as a Shudra or his Atman will end up in the body of an animal. The most important task of man and the main category of the Upanishads is moksha (liberation, salvation). A person must strive for his Atman to merge with the single Brahman and thereby deliverance, liberation from Samsara and from the action of the law of Karma will occur.
Epic period All schools are divided into 2 directions: 1. Orthodox schools (astika) - those schools that recognized the authority of the Vedas. These include: Vedanta, Mimamsa, Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Nyaya. 2. Heterodox schools (nastika) - those schools that did not recognize the authority of the Vedas and opposed the privileged position of Brahmin priests in Indian society. These include: Charvaka Lokayata, Jainism and Buddhism.
Charvaka school The concept of Brahman, Atman, Samsara and Karma is denied. The basis of everything that exists is matter in the form of 4 primary elements: earth, water, air and fire. There is no other world other than the world that is perceived by the senses. Gods do not exist because they cannot be perceived through the senses. Therefore, religion is a stupid delusion. Ethics is based on the principle of hedonism (pleasure). The motto of the Charvaka school is: “We must eat, drink and enjoy life today, for death comes to everyone and always.” All moral norms are declared to be mere conventions that should not be paid attention to.
Buddhism 1. 2. 3. 4. Appears in the 6th century. BC e. Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha). “Buddha” – translated means Enlightened One, Awakened One. Buddhism is based on 4 “noble truths”: Human existence from birth to death is inextricably linked with suffering. There is a cause of suffering, which is the thirst for life, leading through joys and passions to rebirth. There is liberation from suffering, elimination of the causes of suffering, that is, elimination of this thirst for life. There is a right path leading to liberation from suffering and attainment of Nirvana. This path is called the Eightfold Path.
The Man Who Passed eightfold path, achieves first enlightenment (samadhi), and then Nirvana. Nirvana (“extinction”) is the achievement of a state in which all feelings and attachments fade away and become dull. It frees a person from his suffering “I” and from the thirst for life, which leads to endless rebirth. Thus the power of the law of Karma is abolished.
Philosophy of Ancient China 1. 2. 3. 4. Main schools: School of Confucians (direction - Confucianism). School of Taoists (direction - Taoism). Mohist school (direction-Mohism). School of legalists (direction - legalism).
Confucianism Founder - Confu Tzu - Confucius (551 -479 BC). Confucius is the author of the concept of the “noble husband” (Junzi) - a model of an ideal ruler. The obligatory qualities of a noble husband (“Jun Tzu”) Zhen are humanity, mercy, philanthropy. The meaning of humanity is “do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself” (the golden rule of morality). Following duty. SYAO (filial piety). LI - (rules, ritual, ceremony) - complete obedience, a ban on deviating from given norms. WEN – good manners, education. ZHI – intelligence, knowledge, cunning, wisdom.
Taoism Founder – Lao Tzu. The central category is Tao - “unnameable”, “eternally abiding”, formless reality, which cannot be grasped by the mind (reason). Tao permeates the whole world and controls it. This is an invisible universal natural law of nature, human society and thinking. Everything comes from Tao and returns to it after its death. Tao gives everything a beginning, a form. Tao generates everything through De. De (translated as quality, talent, dignity, property, moral strength) - this specific quality of Tao generates everything, De nourishes everything. Man cannot know the Tao, but he can live in harmony with it. To do this, it is necessary to follow the basic principles: l l l The first principle is the experience of the transcendent unity of all things, and not their disunity. The ugly and the beautiful, the small and the great – everything is one in Tao. The second principle is Wu Wei (the principle of non-action). It means non-interference in the natural development of events, not committing actions that go against nature. The third principle is that a wise ruler, following the Tao, does nothing to govern the country.
Legalism (school of legalists) Main representatives: Shang Yang, Han Fei. The central problem is the problem of managing a person and a country. The central category is Fa (law). Basic principles of governing a country The main principle of governing a country is reward and punishment (carrot and stick), and punishment belongs to the main role. Governance of the state must be carried out by developing agriculture, strengthening the army and fooling the people. Everyone is equal before the law except the ruler, who is the creator of these laws. To create a powerful, well-governed state, excess, art, philosophy and dissent must be eliminated.
Ancient philosophy The main stages in the development of Ancient philosophy (6th century BC - 6th century AD): 1. Pre-Socratic (6th -5th centuries BC). Main representatives: Milesian school(Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes), Heraclitus, Pythagoras, the school of Eleatics (Parmenides, Zeno), Democritus, Leucippus, etc. 2. Classical (5th – 4th centuries BC). Main representatives: Sophists (Protagoras, Gorgias, Thrasymachus), Socrates, Plato, Aristotle. 3. Hellenistic period (4th – 2nd centuries BC). Main directions: Epicureanism (Epicure), skepticism (Pyrrho), Stoicism (Zeno). 4. Ancient Roman period (2nd -1st centuries BC – 6th century AD). Main representatives: Seneca, Cicero, Marcus Aurelius, Titus Lucretius Carus, Epictetus, Neoplatonism (Plotinus).
1. Pre-Socratic period of Ancient philosophy (6th -5th centuries BC) This is a natural philosophical period. The main object of research is Space, nature. The main problem of this period is the search for the beginning of the world (arche). Milesian school (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes). Thales sees the origin in water, Anaximander - in apeiron ("infinite"), Anaximenes - in the air. Heraclitus of Ephesus. The origin of the world is Fire. The world is eternal and in constant motion. All changes in the world occur in accordance with necessity, with the universal law - Logos. Logos is the universal order, the logical structure of the world, in accordance with which Fire creates the world. School of the Eleatics. A prominent representative is Parmenides. The central category in the teaching of Parmenides is the category of Being. The main thesis of Parmenides: “Being is, non-being is not.” Being and thought are identical. Main characteristics of Being: 1) Being is eternal. 2) Being is one, whole, homogeneous, continuous. 3) Being is motionless, stable. 4) Existence is not comprehensible by the senses, it is accessible only to the mind. School of ancient Greek atomism (Leucippus, Democritus). The main ideas of the school of atomism: Existence consists of atoms, non-existence consists of emptiness. Atoms are eternal, unchanging, indivisible, impenetrable. Atoms are identical in their qualitative composition. They differ from each other in their volume and shape. All the diversity of the world is formed from different combinations of atoms. Things differ from each other in the number of their atoms, in their shape, order and position. Atoms are forever moving in the void. The movement of atoms is subject to strict necessity. Democritus denies the existence of chance in the world. The human soul also consists of special atoms: spherical, fiery, very mobile. The soul is mortal. After the death of the body, the atoms of the soul are scattered in space. Atoms are not cognizable by the senses, they are comprehensible only by the mind.
Classical period of Ancient philosophy (5th – 4th centuries BC). This period opens with the activity of the Sophists. Sophists are the first paid teachers of wisdom (“Greek enlighteners”). The most famous sophists are Gorgias, Protagoras, Thrasymachus. The sophists created schools where they taught citizens various sciences and arts, the main of which was considered the art of eloquence (rhetoric), the ability to formulate and defend their opinion in a dispute. The main thesis of the Sophists: “Man is the measure of all things: those that exist, that they exist, and those that do not exist, that they do not exist” (Protagoras). Socrates (469 – 399 BC). At the center of Socrates' philosophy is man as a moral being. Unlike the Sophists, Socrates is not interested in oratorical techniques, but in the objective content of the basic civil virtues (good, evil, duty, honor, justice, etc.), which would make it possible to distinguish truth from lies. Each person must examine himself to see how well his own ideas correspond to the concept of a particular virtue. A person must take the path of self-knowledge: “Know yourself!” . In order to find the truth, Socrates develops a complex system of techniques known as the maieutics method or “Socratic dialogue”.
Plato (427 – 347 BC). Plato is the creator of the first system of objective idealism in the history of philosophy. The core of Plato's philosophical system is his theory of Ideas. Each class of sensory-perceptible things has its own Idea. Ideas are not abstractions, not concepts of the human mind. Ideas are the causes of things, the world of ideas is the cause of the sensory-perceptible world. Ideas do not exist in this world. Ideas exist regardless material world, i.e. they exist objectively. The world of ideas subjugates the world of things. Ideas are incorporeal, motionless, eternal. Ideas are not accessible to sensory perception. Ideas are comprehensible only by reason. Ideas are the essence of things. The world of ideas has a structure, a hierarchy. At the top of the pyramid is the Idea of the Good, towards which everything strives and which ensures the unity of the world of Ideas. The world of things is a pale cast, “a shadow from the world of Ideas.” The world of things is a synthesis of the world of Ideas and matter.
Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) - a student of Plato, the most universal thinker of Antiquity, encyclopedist philosopher, creator of the most extensive system of scientific knowledge of Antiquity, author of more than 150 scientific treatises, creator of formal logic. He criticized Plato's "world of ideas". According to Aristotle's ideas, the individual existence of a thing has a cause not in the world of Ideas, but in itself. A single thing is a combination of Form (morphe) and Matter (gyle). The form of a thing is its reality. The matter of a thing is its possibility, that is, only the possibility of becoming this or that thing. Everything in the world is in motion. Movement is the realization of the possible. Aristotle identifies 4 reasons for changes occurring in the things of the world: 1. material, 2. Formal, 3. Active. 4. Target or final. Everything in the world moves for a reason, but towards a certain goal. Aristotle calls this movement entelechy (or development). The goal of all becoming is the development of potentiality into actuality, the introduction of form into matter. The doctrine of the soul. The soul is a form in relation to the body. The soul has 3 levels: Plant soul - in charge of the functions of nutrition, growth and reproduction. The sensual soul is the ability to have sensations. A rational soul (possessed only by man) is the ability to think and know. Man is a “zoon politikon”, i.e. a social being. Man by nature is designed to live together.
Hellenistic period (4th – 2nd centuries BC) In philosophy, the emphasis shifts to the area of ethics. Philosophers began to be concerned not with the question of what the world is, but with the question of how to be happy. Such philosophical schools as Epicureanism, skepticism, and stoicism emerged. Epicureanism. The founder, Epicurus, develops the atomistic teaching of Democritus. The main goal of philosophy is to teach a person to be happy. Happiness is serene peace, complete absence of suffering (ataraxia), pleasure. Suffering is caused by various types of fear: fear of natural phenomena, fear of gods, fear of death. The entire teaching of Epicurus is aimed at overcoming these fears, in which there are 3 main parts: physics, psychology, ethics. The goal of physics is to prove that all natural phenomena have natural causes, and as a consequence of this, to dispel fear of natural phenomena. Epicurus develops the atomistic teaching of Democritus by recognizing the arbitrary deviation of atoms from rectilinear motion (i.e., he introduces the concept of randomness). The goal of psychology is to dispel people's fear of death. The soul is corporeal, it consists of atoms. The soul is mortal. No afterlife no, so there is no need to worry yourself with thoughts about what will happen after death. Death and life never meet: while we are alive, there is no death, and when there is death, we are not. The purpose of ethical teaching is to teach people to be happy. In order to be happy, one must strive for natural and necessary pleasures (quenching hunger, thirst, shelter from cold and bad weather, etc.). and avoid the unnatural and unnecessary (for example, the thirst for fame, the desire for power, etc.), as well as the natural and unnecessary (fine food, beautiful clothes, etc.).
Skepticism. Founder: Pyrrhon. The main problem is how to become happy? Happiness is ataraxia (peace, serenity). To achieve ataraxia, complete abstinence from any judgments about the world (epoch) is necessary. The main opponent of a person seeking peace is his craving for knowledge. Cognition is a destructive force. Skeptics' motto: "Follow life without opinion." Stoicism. Founder: Zeno. The ethics of the Stoics rests on their belief in providence and the rationality of the cosmos. In space there is a higher intelligent force that predetermines everything and controls everything. The main ethical thesis of the Stoics is that it is not the circumstances of our lives that depend on us, but only our attitude towards these circumstances. The Stoics cultivated ataraxia (equanimity) and apathy (dispassion). The Stoic ideal of the sage is passive, he takes in everything that happens, since everything happens according to the plan of the comic god-mind.
Ancient Roman philosophy(2nd century BC – 6th century AD). Neoplatonism is the last major philosophical system of Antiquity. Appears in the 3rd century. n. e. The founder is Ammonius Saccas (175 - 242). The most prominent representative is Plotinus (205 - 270). The main work of Plotinus is “The Eneads”. The main thing in Neoplatonism is the doctrine of otherworldliness, super-intelligence of the origin of everything that exists (the One) and of mystical ecstasy as a means of approaching this origin. The world, for Neoplatonists, is hierarchical. The beginning of the world is the One - it does not depend on anything, does not strive for anything, it exists on its own, it is self-sufficient. From the One comes activity (emanation - outflow), which Plotinus calls light. Activity creates hypostases of the One, that is, it generates something similar to the One. But at the same time, the One itself does not lose anything; it remains integral. From the One (as from the first higher reality) comes the second – Nus-Spirit-Mind. The activity flowing from the One already becomes the activity of the Spirit-Mind and creates the third hypostasis - the World Soul. The World Soul is a mediator between the supersensible and sensory worlds. The real, physical world, according to Plotinus, arises as a consequence of the activity of the World Soul. The world is just a remnant of the activity of the One. Man is dual by nature. The human soul is a piece of the World Soul. The human body is the source of everything evil, everything imperfect in man. The main life task of a person is reunification with the One. The path to reunification with the One is ecstasy (going beyond), which is achieved by mental concentration and suppression of everything bodily.
Philosophy of the Middle Ages (V-XV centuries) Features of the philosophy of the Middle Ages: 1) close connection with Christianity, 2) the origins of medieval philosophy are ancient philosophy and scripture, 3) all philosophical problems are solved from the position of theocentrism, creationism and providentialism. Theocentrism is an understanding of the world in which one God is the center of everything in the world (the source and cause of everything that exists; the source of faith, a value system (creativity, goodness, truth, beauty, love), thinking, knowledge, etc.). Creationism (creatio - in translation from Latin - creation, creation) is the principle according to which God created living and inanimate nature out of nothing. Providentialism is a system of views according to which all events occurring in the world are controlled by divine providence. The world does not develop on its own, but according to God’s providence, which gives all world processes a purposeful character. Medieval philosophy includes the idea of theodicy and the eschatological idea. Theodicy - (Greek theos - God and dike - justice, right; literally means - justification of God) - a religious and philosophical doctrine, the purpose of which is to justify the idea of God as absolute good, relieving him of responsibility for the presence of evil in the world. Eschatology (Greek eschatos last, logos - teaching) is a religious doctrine about the end of history and the final fate of the world.
There are two main stages in the development of medieval philosophy - patristics (2nd - 8th centuries) and scholasticism (8th - 15th centuries). Patristics is the period of creation of Christian dogmas; teachings of the Christian Church Fathers. Main representatives: Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Tertullian, Origen, Augustine the Blessed. The task of patristics is to create a systematic Christian dogma based on the Holy Scriptures, that is, to develop the main provisions of the Christian doctrine (canon). The main problems of patristics: the problem of the essence of God and his trinity (Trinitarian problem), the problem of the relationship between the Truths of Faith and the Truths of Reason, the problem of understanding history as movement towards the final goal - the City of God, the problem of theodicy. Scholasticism (scholia- school) - literally translated as “school philosophy”, i.e. philosophy, which was intended for mass teaching of people the basics of Christianity. The goal of scholasticism is 1) to make Christian dogma accessible to ordinary believers; 2) rationally substantiate Christian dogma. Main representatives: Thomas Aquinas, Anselm of Canterbury, Pierre Abelard, William of Ockham. During the period of scholasticism, a dispute broke out between scholastics over the problem of “universals” (general concepts), which led to the formation of two movements of realism and nominalism. According to the doctrine of realism, only general concepts(universals), and not separate, individual things in the world. Universals exist before things, representing Ideas in the divine mind. According to the doctrine of nominalism, general concepts are only names; they do not have any independent existence outside and apart from individual things. Only things really exist. Universals are formed through abstraction. Universals exist not before, but after things.
Philosophy of the Renaissance (XIV - XVI centuries) The main features of the philosophy of the Renaissance: 1. In the approved system of values, the ideas of humanism (Latin humanus - humane) come to the fore. Humanism is a system of views imbued with respect for human dignity and recognizing the value of man as an individual, his right to freedom, happiness, development and manifestation of his abilities. Humanism is based on anthropocentrism 2. Anthropocentrism - now it is not God, but man, who is placed at the center of research. 3. There is an appeal to the Ancient heritage as an ideal (hence the name of the era), in contrast to the Middle Ages, which was treated as an authority. 4. Depersonalization of God. God dissolves in nature, the world and God are identified. This position is called pantheism (from the Greek pan - all, teos - god). Main representatives: N. Kuzansky, J. Bruno. 5. Aestheticism. At this time, the border between philosophy, science, and art is practically blurred. During the Renaissance, interest in art, artistic and aesthetic orientation was characteristic of all types of human activity. 6. There is great interest in social problems(N. Machiavelli), the first utopias became widespread (“Utopia” by T. More, “City of the Sun” by T. Campanella).
Philosophy of the New Time (17th - mid-19th centuries) 1. 2. 3. Philosophy of the New Time includes 3 periods: Philosophy of the 17th century. Philosophy of the Enlightenment (18th century). German classical philosophy. Philosophy of the 17th century. Features of this period: 1) this is the period of the decomposition of feudalism and the emergence of capitalism, 2) the face of the era gradually begins to be determined by science and its authority replaces the authority of religion, 3) science is separated from philosophy and becomes an independent form of cognitive activity, 4) mechanics plays a dominant role in science , 5) in philosophy, epistemology (theory of knowledge) occupies a central place, 6) in philosophy, two trends take shape: empiricism and rationalism.
Empiricism is a direction of philosophical thought focused on experimental natural science and recognizing experience as the only source of knowledge. The founder of empiricism is F. Bacon (1561 - 1626). The main motto of the empiricists: “There is nothing in the mind that was not previously contained in experience.” Main representatives: F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, J. Locke and others.
Rationalism (Latin: ratio - reason) is a direction of philosophical thought that focuses on mathematics and asserts the primacy of reason in knowledge, the independence of reason from sensory perceptions. The founder of rationalism is R. Descartes. Reason is the source of knowledge and the criterion of truth. The human mind itself contains, regardless of experience, a number of ideas that exist not on the basis of experience, but before any experience. Main representatives: R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz and others.
Philosophy of the Enlightenment (18th century) Features of the philosophy of the Enlightenment: The goal of the Enlightenment was criticism of the foundations of feudal ideology, criticism religious worldview; the struggle for freedom of philosophical and scientific thought. The cult of Science is being formed. Materialism is being formed as a fairly integral philosophical doctrine. An atheistic worldview is being formed. Social progress is associated with scientific achievements. All philosophers and educators are united by the idea of restructuring life on a reasonable basis. The conditions for reconstruction are knowledge and enlightenment. Main representatives: Voltaire, Diderot, Helvetius, La Mettrie, Rousseau, Lessing, Holbach, etc.
German classical philosophy Main representatives: I. Kant, G. Hegel, F. Schelling, J. Fichte, L. Feuerbach. The founder of German classical philosophy is Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804). The main stages in the formation of I. Kant's philosophy: 1) Pre-critical period (1746 - 1770). Main problems: the origin and development of the solar system, the history of the Earth and prospects for future development, the history of the origin of human races, etc.; 2) Critical period (1770 – 1804). Main issues: exploration of cognition and the limits of the human mind; development of the doctrine of the “thing in itself”; development of ethical issues, etc.
The main ideas of I. Kant's philosophy Kant formulates his research program in three fundamental questions: “What can I know? " , "What should I do? " and "What can I hope for? ". The task of philosophy is to criticize the reliability of knowledge and establish the boundaries of reason. Basic concepts of Kant’s philosophical system “The Thing in Itself” (the world of noumena) - objective reality, existing independently of man. The “thing in itself” cannot be cognized by man (either through his thinking or through his senses). “Phenomenon” (the world of phenomena) is how a thing exists in the human mind. A priori – knowledge obtained independently of experience. It has universality and necessity. A posteriori is knowledge obtained from experience, as opposed to a priori (“pre-experimental” knowledge). Transcendental is any knowledge that is not experimental, not empirical, but that knowledge that operates only with a priori (pre-experimental) forms. The transcendental is everything that relates to a priori (i.e., outside or pre-experimental) conditions of the possibility of knowledge, its formal prerequisites that organize experience. Transcendental knowledge is knowledge that deals with the types of our knowledge insofar as this knowledge is possible a priori.
The transcendental is everything that goes beyond the limits of possible experience (for example, God, the immortality of the soul, etc.). The transcendental is that which is internal to consciousness and cognizable. The transcendental is that which is beyond consciousness and unknowable (“the thing in itself”). Kant calls his philosophy transcendental because it explores the transition of the data of experience into the system formed by our consciousness, as a result of which there is universal and necessary knowledge. Man as a subject capable of constructing his object in his consciousness is a transcendental subject.
The structure of the process of cognition (according to Kant) The process of cognition goes through 3 stages: sensory cognition, reason and reason. Sensory cognition. Its function is to obtain meaningful information about objects in the external world. Space and time are a priori (pre-experimental) forms of sensibility, through which sensory material is ordered and structured. In the world of “things-in-themselves” there is neither space nor time. Space and time are not characteristics of the objects themselves, but belong to our consciousness, internal, pre-experimental forms of their sensory perception.
Reason. An object is given to us through sensory knowledge, but it is thought through a priori forms of reason - categories. Categories are a priori (pre-experimental) and are of a universal and necessary nature. The function of reason is the structuring of sensory experience through categories, giving knowledge the status of universally significant. The union of sensuality and thinking reason gives scientific (generally valid) knowledge. Kant: “Reason does not draw its laws (a priori) from nature, but prescribes them to it.” Only the world of experience is accessible to reason. Reason always remains within the limits of only the world of “phenomena”, and the “thing in itself” is unknowable for us (agnosticism).
Reason is directed not directly at experience, but at reason. The mind sets goals and tasks for the mind. The mind operates with Ideas: God, Soul, World as a whole. Ideas are an idea of the goal towards which our knowledge strives. They give the mind systemic unity and encourage it to endlessly move toward improvement and achieve complete knowledge. Ideas play a regulatory role in cognition, that is, they indicate the direction for the activity of the mind. There are no adequate objects for the ideas of Reason - analogues of experience. When Reason begins to think of them as real objects and tries to investigate them, it falls into contradictions - antinomies (a contradiction formed by two judgments, each of which is recognized as true). All previous (pre-Kantian) philosophy tried to comprehend the nature of the soul, the world, and God, believing that all of these were real objects. But meanwhile, the ideas of Reason indicate the ideal limit - the horizon of theoretical knowledge. Since neither the immortal soul, nor the world as a whole, nor God are given to us in our sensory experience, they cannot be subjects of scientific research. Kant's ethics is rigoristic in nature (that is, it is an ethics of duty). Kant puts it this way categorical imperative: “Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, both in your own person and in the person of everyone else, as an end and never treat it only as a means.” A person should only be an end and can never be a means.
Philosophy of G. Hegel According to the views of G. Hegel, the basis of the world is the absolute, spiritual and a smart start– Absolute Idea (or World Spirit, World Mind). The absolute idea is an active and active principle. The activity of the Absolute Idea consists of self-knowledge. The world process is a process in which the Absolute Idea cognizes its content. The diversity of the world is the result of actions, creativity of the Absolute Idea. The Absolute Idea itself exists independently of nature and of human consciousness, that is, it exists objectively.
Stages of self-development (self-knowledge) of the Absolute Idea At the first stage, the Absolute Idea develops outside of time and space, in the sphere of pure thought, pure thinking, i.e. it is in its own womb. Here the Absolute Idea reveals its content in a system of laws and interconnected and transforming categories of dialectics (being - non-being, quality - quantity, individual - general, etc.) Categories determine the entire logical order of the world. At the second stage, the Absolute Idea turns into its opposite - nature. With all the variety of changes taking place in nature, there is nothing new in them, but only reveals the wealth of content that the Absolute Idea accumulated at the first stage of its development. In the third stage, the Absolute Idea returns to itself and comprehends itself in the form of human consciousness, self-awareness and activity. In man, the abstract and impersonal World Spirit acquires will, character, individuality, personality, etc. The Absolute recognizes itself in the frozen results of its own activity, which appear in the form of cultural formations: cities and roads, temples and fortresses; religious beliefs, legal norms, scientific theories and political organizations, which together constitute an integral system that determines general character historical era.
Main schools and directions of Western philosophy of the 19th-20th centuries. (non-classical type of philosophy). In the context of the development of Western European philosophy, 2 eras can be distinguished: Classical era. In a broad sense, Classics is the development of philosophy from Antiquity to German classical philosophy. In a narrow sense, Classical philosophy is the philosophy of the New Age. Non-classical era (from the mid-19th century to the present day). Here two periods can be distinguished: non-classical philosophy of the 19th century and Western philosophy of the 20th - 21st centuries. The non-classical type of philosophizing arises as a result of a critical assessment of the ideals and attitudes of classical philosophy. Ideals of the Classics: Rationalism. Cult of the mind. Science orientation. The cult of science. Substantialism. Belief in social progress.
Since the mid-19th century, there has been a critical rethinking of classical philosophy, in which 3 main directions can be distinguished: 1. Proclassical direction (Marxism - positivism - structuralism). There is a desire to develop philosophical Classics, but in different forms. 2. Anti-classical direction (irrationalism). There is a desire here to escape the dominance of rationality and science. Logic, science and reason itself begin to be assessed as a tool of oppression and suppression of the individual. This includes: the philosophy of A. Schopenhauer, “philosophy of life” (W. Dilthey, F. Nietzsche, G. Simmel, A. Bergson), the philosophy of S. Kierkegaard, existentialism (Heidegger, Camus, Sartre, etc.). 3. Neoclassical direction (neo-Hegelianism, neo-Kantianism, neo-Thomism). The goal of this direction is to preserve and protect the classical heritage. It appears as a counterweight to the anti-classical movement. The main directions (schools) of the non-classical type of philosophizing: 1) Marxism and post-Marxism (Frankfurt School), 2) “philosophy of life”, 3) positivism, neopositivism, post-positivism 4) pragmatism, 5) psychoanalysis (Freud, Jung), 6) phenomenology ( Husserl), 7) existentialism, 8) structuralism and post-structuralism, 9) hermeneutics (Dilthey, Gadamer), neo-Thomism, etc.
Traditions and features of Russian philosophy 1. 2. 3. 4. . Russian philosophy is one of the trends in world philosophy. The formation of Russian philosophical thought was determined by two traditions: the Slavic philosophical and mythological tradition and the Greek-Byzantine religious and philosophical tradition. Russian philosophy has gone through a long path of development, in which a number of stages are distinguished: Philosophical thought Kievan Rus X-XII centuries (Main representatives: Metropolitan of Kyiv Hilarion, Prince Vladimir Monomakh, Nestor, K. Turovsky, S. Radonezhsky, etc.) Philosophical thought of Muscovite Rus' XIII-XVIII centuries. (Josephites (Joseph of Volotsky) and non-covetous people (Nil Sorsky), Elder Philotheus and his concept of “Moscow - the third Rome”, A. Kurbsky, Simeon of Polotsk, Yu. Krizhanich, etc.) Russian philosophy of the second half of the 18th century. - first half of the 19th century. (Lomonosov, Skovoroda, Radishchev, A. D. Kantemir, V. N. Tatishchev, S. E. Desnitsky, D. S. Anichkov, A. I. Herzen, D. I. Pisarev, N. P. Ogarev, A I. Galich, P. L. Lavrov, M. L. Bakunin, P. A. Krapotkin, P. Ya. Chaadaev, Westerners (P. V. Annenkov, K. D. Kavelin, T. N. Granovsky) and Slavophiles (A. S. Khomyakov, I. V. Kireevsky, Aksakov brothers, etc.) Russian religious philosophy of the second half of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century “ silver Age"Russian philosophy. (V. S. Solovyov, N. A. Berdyaev, S. M. Bulgakov, S. L. Frank, L. P. Karsavin, P. A. Florensky, S. N. Trubetskoy, etc.)
Westerners and Slavophiles are opposite trends in Russian social thought of the 40s and 50s. XIX centuries The identification of these directions occurred in connection with the discussion in Russian society of the problem of choosing the path of historical development of Russia. The essence of the problem: either Russia will follow the path of development of Western European countries, or will choose its own, original path of development. Westerners believed that Russia, which had lagged behind world civilization, would have to master Western values and implement socio-economic reforms according to the Western model. Slavophiles came out with a justification for the original path of historical development of Russia, fundamentally different from the Western European path. They saw the uniqueness of Russia in the Russian community, in Orthodoxy as the only true Christianity.
Section 3. Ontology The main problems of ontology as a philosophical doctrine of being. 2. Dialectics as a philosophical concept of development and its alternatives. 1.
The main problems of ontology as a philosophical doctrine of being. Ontology (from the Greek ontos - existing, logos - doctrine) is a philosophical doctrine about existence, about the origins of all things, about the general principles and laws of the existence of nature, society and man. The category “Being” is the most general concept (category), an extremely general abstraction that unites the most diverse objects, phenomena, states, processes on the basis of existence. The category being denotes the universal property of things, phenomena, processes - to be present, to be present. Philosophical category being reflects “existence as such” regardless of its specific bearer.
Objective reality is everything that exists outside and independently of a person’s consciousness (regardless of his will, desire). Subjective reality is everything that belongs to a person’s consciousness, as well as various forms of manifestation of his unconscious, various mental states of a person. This is all that belongs to the inner spiritual world Man cannot exist outside of him. Existence is objective and subjective reality in its totality. Being as a total reality exists in four main forms:
Basic forms of existence 1. Existence of nature Existence of the first nature (things, bodies, processes untouched by man (virgin nature)). The existence of the second nature (things, bodies created by man (nature transformed by man). 2. The existence of man in the world of things (here man is considered as a thing among other things, as a body among other bodies, which obeys the laws of finite transitory bodies (biological laws, cycles development and death of organisms).Own human existence (here a person is considered not as an object, but as a subject who obeys not only the laws of nature, but also exists as a social, spiritual and moral being).
3. The existence of the spiritual Individualized spiritual (these are purely individual processes of consciousness and the unconscious of each person). Objectified spiritual (this is supra-individual spiritual, this is everything that is the property of not only the individual, but also society (“social memory of culture”). 4. Existence of the social Existence of an individual person in society and in the process of history (processes of socialization and life activity of each person within a specific human community and social group in a specific historical era). The existence of society itself (the manifestation of the life activity of society as an integral organism in the unity of the material, production and spiritual spheres).
Matter is an objective reality that exists independently of human consciousness and is reflected by it. Matter as an objective reality covers not only the natural world, but also society (society). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Attributes of matter: Objectivity of existence Cognizability Persistence Systemic-structural nature of the organization Inexhaustibility Movement Reflection Space Time
Structural levels of organization of matter Inanimate sphere Space systems of varying complexity (planets, systems of planets, Galaxy, etc.) Macroscopic level Living sphere Socially organized sphere Biosphere Society Biocinosis Cultural-civilizational level Population level Level of socio-economic formations Atomic level Species level States Nuclear level Level of organisms National-ethnic level Elementary level (elementary particles) Cell level Social groups Sub-elementary level (physical vacuum, quarks, etc.) Pre-cellular level (DNA, RNA, proteins) Family Molecular level Human
Movement is a way of existence of matter. Movement is any change in general. The concept of movement covers all types of changes and interactions occurring in the world. Forms of movement of matter Mechanical (simple mechanical movement, change in the location of an object). Physical (movement of elementary particles, intra-atomic and nuclear processes, molecular and thermal motion, electromagnetic and other processes). Chemical (inorganic chemical reactions leading to the formation of organic substances, geological processes, etc.). Biological (metabolism, reproduction, heredity, growth, natural selection, etc.). Social (material and spiritual life of the individual and society in all its diverse manifestations).
Space is an objective form of existence of matter, expressing: the relative position of material objects (in front, behind, outside, inside, near, far, etc.), their ability to occupy a certain volume (i.e. to have extension, length, width and height), have a certain shape, structure. Time is an objective form of existence of matter, expressing the duration of existence (year, century) and the sequence of successive states of objects, systems and processes (before, after, simultaneously).
Analysis of the problem of space and time involves a difference in concepts: 1. Real space and time 2. Perceptual space and time 3. Conceptual space and time Real space and time characterizes the objective space-time properties and relationships of the real objects and phenomena themselves, existing independently of human consciousness . At the perceptual level, a person cognizes spatiotemporal forms with the help of the senses and forms sensory images and ideas. These ideas are individual, that is, they depend on the physiological and psychological characteristics of a person. Conceptual space and time expresses the theoretical level of knowledge about the spatiotemporal organization of the world. These are teachings, concepts, theories of space and time. They depend not on the individual characteristics of a person, but on the level of development of society, science, culture, and are universally significant for their era.
Basic concepts of space and time Substantial 2. Relational The substantial concept considers space and time as special entities that exist on their own, regardless of material objects. Here space and time are considered as independent substances, as an empty container of things, bodies, processes. The relational concept views space and time as a special kind of relationship between objects and processes, outside of which they cannot exist. Spatiotemporal properties depend on the nature and speed of moving material systems and act as relationships between these moving material systems. 1.
Dialectics (in modern understanding) is a theory and method of cognition of reality, the doctrine of the interconnection of all phenomena of the world and the universal laws of development of nature, society, and thinking. Historical forms dialectics Dialectics of ancient philosophers (Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato). 2. Idealist dialectics of German classical philosophy (Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel). 3. Materialistic dialectics (Marx, Engels). Objective dialectics are the processes of interaction, interconnection and development in the material world itself as a single interconnected whole. It does not depend either on the consciousness of man or on the consciousness of humanity. 1. Subjective dialectics (or dialectical thinking) is the movement and development of thoughts and concepts that reflect objective dialectics in the human mind. Subjective dialectics is also a theory of dialectics, i.e., the doctrine of the universal laws of development of both the external world and thinking itself.
Structural elements of dialectics: 1. 2. 3. Principles Laws Categories. Basic principles of dialectics: 1. The principle of universal connection 2. The principle of development 3. The principle of systematicity 4. The principle of causality The principle of universal connection means the integrity of the surrounding world, its internal unity, interconnectedness and interdependence of all its components (objects, phenomena, processes). The principle of development expresses the idea that everything in the world changes and development is a necessary, universal and natural process, i.e. the principle of development denies the existence in the world of frozen, non-developing objects, processes, and phenomena. The principle of systematicity means that numerous connections in the world around us do not exist chaotically, but are ordered. These connections form an integral system in which they are arranged in a hierarchical order. The principle of causality means that all objects (phenomena, processes) of the surrounding reality are causally determined and interdependent. Objects in the surrounding world have either an external or internal cause. The cause, in turn, gives rise to the effect, and the relationships as a whole are called cause-and-effect.
Basic (fundamental) laws of dialectics 1. The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes. 2. The law of unity and struggle of opposites. 3. The law of negation. All laws operate simultaneously, since development is systemic in nature. The law of mutual transition of quantitative and qualitative changes reveals the mechanism of development, that is, it explains how new qualities arise in the process of development. The essence of the law is that gradual quantitative changes that are constantly taking place in objects, but for the time being do not change their basic features, when reaching the boundaries of the measure lead to qualitative changes. The transition from quantitative to qualitative changes occurs in the form of a leap.
The law of unity and struggle of opposites is the core of dialectics, since it indicates the reason, the source of dialectical change. The essence of the law is that every object in the world is characterized by internal opposites. These opposites interact: they presuppose a friend and fight among themselves. It is the struggle of internal opposites that serves as the source, the cause of self-motion, self-development of the phenomena of the world. Dialectical opposites are such relations of individual sides, properties, features of an object (system), in which they are mutually exclusive. For example: in an atom there are positively and negatively charged particles; in living nature there are processes of heredity and variability, in society - production - consumption, etc. Dialectical contradiction is a relationship between opposites when they are both mutually exclusive and mutually presupposed. There are: Internal and external contradictions; Basic and non-basic contradictions; Antagonistic and non-antagonistic; In the change and development of objects, the decisive role belongs to internal, fundamental contradictions.
The law of negation indicates the direction of the development process. The essence of the law is that the new always denies the old and takes its place, but gradually it itself turns from new into old and is negated by more and more new things. The main content of dialectical negation is three points: 1. Destruction, dying away of everything old, obsolete; 2. Preservation of everything positive, capable of development. 3. Construction, i.e. formation, emergence of something new. The negation of the negation first of all presupposes: Recurrence in the development process; a return to the original position, but at a new, higher level; the relative completeness of specific development cycles; and the irreducibility of development to movement in a circle.
Categories of dialectics If the laws of dialectics reveal the essence of the development process, then the universal connections between objects and phenomena of the world are reflected and fixed in the categories of dialectics. Main categories of dialectics: Individual, general, special; Essence is a phenomenon; Part - whole; Form - content; Cause - effect, Necessity - accident, Possibility - reality, etc.
Alternatives to dialectics Eclecticism is the lack of unity, integrity, consistency in beliefs and theories; combining different, often heterogeneous points of view. Sophistry is the conscious use in argument or in evidence of incorrect arguments (so-called sophistry), that is, all kinds of tricks disguised by external correctness. Metaphysics (anti-dialectics) - allows for an understanding of the world as unchangeable in its essence, allows for the creation of an unambiguous, static picture of the world, an isolated consideration of certain moments of existence.
Section 4. Philosophical anthropology The problem of man in philosophy and science. 2. The problem of consciousness in modern philosophy. 1.
Philosophical anthropology is a branch of philosophical knowledge that studies man in the multidimensionality of his existence. Scientific approach to the study of man 1. Science is distracted from solving questions about the meaning of human existence, from the value aspect. 2. Science suffers from reductionism (i.e., reducing the complex to the simple). 3. Science studies a person in detail, i.e., the emphasis is on particular manifestations of human properties (biology, psychology, medicine, etc.). Philosophical approach to the problem of man 1. Philosophy comprehends man in the integrity of his existence. 2. Philosophy focuses on the uniqueness of human existence, explores the unique characteristics that are inherent only to man and no one else.
1. 2. 3. 4. Basic concepts of philosophical understanding of man Naturalizing (here man is understood as an element of nature, subject to its laws and not having in his characteristics anything beyond what is in natural formations). Existential-personalistic (man is understood as a unique experience of freedom, independent of natural and social conditions, through which a person creates both himself and external world). The emphasis here is on the uniqueness of personal experience. Rationalistic (defines the essential feature of man by the presence of reason, through which the natural in man is overcome). Sociologizing (the essence of a person is determined by society. “Man is the totality of all social relations”).
The problem of anthropogenesis (the origin of man) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Basic concepts: Creationist concept. Evolutionism. Labor concept Symbolic concept Game concept. Psychoanalytic concept, etc.
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. Main factors of anthropogenesis Ecological (externally natural). Anthropological (anatomical and morphological, i.e. upright posture, development of the hand, increase in brain volume (hominid triad). Social. Man is the unity of three components: Biological (anatomical and physiological structure, type of nervous system, gender and age characteristics, etc. . etc.) Mental (sensations, imagination, memory, will, character, etc.) Social (worldview, values, moral qualities, knowledge, skills, etc.).
The problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in humans 1. Panbiologism is the concept according to which human development is entirely determined by genes (i.e., biological factors). 2. Pansociology is a concept according to which all people are born with the same genetic inclinations, and the main role in human development is played by upbringing and education (i.e., the social factor).
Consciousness is the highest form of reflection of reality; characteristic only of people as social beings, and associated with speech, is a function of the brain that consists in a generalized and purposeful reflection of reality in the course of practical activity, in the preliminary mental construction of actions and anticipation of their results, in the regulation and self-control of human behavior. Basic philosophical concepts consciousness 1. Substantial 2. Functional 3. Existential-phenomenological
Reflection is a property of any material systems, their ability to capture, reproduce and use in their own changes certain features of other objects or systems in the process or result of interaction with them. All material systems have reflection; it is an obligatory side of any interaction. Reflection is qualitatively different at different levels of organization of matter. In inanimate nature, reflection manifests itself in a set of physical and chemical changes that are adequate to external influences. Isomorphic (structure-like) mappings, imprints resulting from the interaction of two or more objects (for example, a mark, dents, scratches, magnetization, etc.), are widespread here.
Forms of reflection in the living sphere Irritability is the body’s ability to carry out the simplest specific reactions in response to the action of certain stimuli. Sensitivity is the ability of organisms to have sensations, that is, to reflect the individual properties of objects affecting the organism. Sensitivity is inherent only in the animal world, but not in plants, since the presence of nervous tissue is necessary. Mental reflection is associated with the emergence of the central nervous system and brain. Psyche is the ability of living organisms to analyze complex complexes of simultaneously acting stimuli and reflect them in the form of a holistic image of the situation. The basis of mental reflection is conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. The highest form of mental reflection is consciousness.
The difference between human consciousness and the animal psyche 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The presence of goal setting. The presence of developed forms of language. Having self-awareness. Human ability for abstract logical thinking. Structure of consciousness Knowledge Feelings and emotions Values Will Memory Imagination
Section 5. Theory of knowledge and philosophy of science. Cognition as a subject of philosophical analysis. 2. Science as an object of philosophical analysis. 1.
Cognition as a subject of philosophical analysis The section of philosophical knowledge that studies the essence of the process of cognition, the laws of the emergence and development of knowledge is called epistemology (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge, logos - teaching). The main problems of epistemology: the problem of the cognizability of the world, the problem of the subject and source of knowledge, the structure of the cognitive process, the problem of methods and forms of knowledge, the problem of truth and its criteria, etc. Cognition is the creative activity of man, aimed at adequately reproducing the natural, social and spiritual reality in the form of knowledge. The results of cognition appear in the form of knowledge.
The subject of cognition is a person, as a bearer of consciousness, who is characterized by certain cognitive abilities (sensibility, reason, will, memory, imagination, intuition, etc.). The role of the subject can be an individual, a social group, or society as a whole. The object of cognition is a fragment of reality towards which the cognitive activity of the subject is directed. The object of knowledge can be nature, man, society. The object of knowledge is the specific aspects of the object of knowledge to which cognitive activity is directed. For example, in natural science (physics, chemistry, biology, etc.) the object of knowledge is nature, but each discipline has its own subject.
Structure of the cognition process Sensory side of cognition: Sensations Perceptions Representations Rational side of cognition: Concepts Judgments Inferences
Sensory side of cognition: Sensation is a reflection in the human mind of individual aspects, properties of objects, phenomena, processes with their direct impact on the senses (vision, hearing, smell, touch, etc.). Perception is a reflection of a holistic image of an object, directly given in living contemplation in the totality of all sides and connections; synthesis of data from individual sensations. A representation is a generalized sensory-visual image of an object that has affected the senses before, but is not perceived at the moment. This includes images of imagination and images of memory; there is no direct connection with a real object.
The rational side of cognition. A concept is a form of thinking that reflects general natural connections, aspects, and signs of phenomena that are enshrined in their definitions. For example, a person, an animal, an elementary particle, a cell, etc. Judgment is a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied about an object or phenomenon. For example, an apple tree grows in a garden. It's raining now. Inference is a form of thinking consisting in the fact that a new one is derived from one or more judgments - a third judgment (conclusion). For example. All people are mortal. Ivanov is a man. Ivanov is mortal.
The problem of truth in philosophy Truth is the content of our knowledge corresponding to reality ( Classic concept truth, the author of which is Aristotle). Really existing objects (phenomena, processes) in themselves can be neither true nor false. Our knowledge of them can be either true or false. Truth has several sides: objectivity, absoluteness, relativity and concreteness (dialectical-materialist concept of truth). Objective truth is the content of knowledge that does not depend on either man or humanity. Objective truth is an adequate reflection of an object by a cognizing subject, i.e., its reproduction as it exists in itself, regardless of the personal qualities or social characteristics of the researcher.
Absolute truth is understood as: 1. Complete exhaustive knowledge of reality as a whole (epistemological ideal). 2. An element of knowledge that can never be refuted in the future. For example, all people are mortal. Relative truth is the content of knowledge that is clarified in the course of cognition. Concrete truth - any true knowledge is always determined in its content and application by the given conditions of place, time and many specific circumstances, which in knowledge must be taken into account as accurately as possible. Objective, absolute, specific, relative truth are not different “grades” of truth, but the same knowledge with its own characteristic features (properties).
Alternative concepts of truth 1. Pragmatic (Greek pragma - deed, action) concept. The knowledge that leads to the successful achievement of a goal is declared true. (Pierce, James, Dewey). 2. Coherent (lat. Cohaerentia - connection, cohesion) concept. Truth is the property of self-consistency and logical consistency of knowledge. (Neurath, Carnap, Rescher, etc.) 3. Conventionalist (lat. conventionio - agreement) concept. Truth is a product of agreement within the scientific community. (Poincare, Aidukevich, etc.). 4. Existential concept. Truth is a form of the psychological state of the individual. Existential truth is not known, but experienced. (Sartre, Shestov, Berdyaev, Jaspers, Heidegger, etc.).
Science as an object of philosophical analysis Science is a specific form of cognitive activity aimed at achieving new, objectively true knowledge, carried out by the scientific community in specific sociocultural conditions. The purpose of scientific activity is to give a person objective systematic knowledge about the world, to reveal objective causes and laws operating in the world. The result of scientific activity is systematized, reliable, practically verified knowledge.
As a type of activity, science is characterized by the following: Focuses on the search for essence. Works with ideal objects. The presence of a certain system of values: the value of objective truth, the value of reason, the value of new knowledge, etc. The presence of a certain set of technical devices. The presence of a set of special methods used to obtain new knowledge. Method of organizing scientific activity. Availability of a special language. Availability of professionally trained personnel.
The structure of scientific knowledge Scientific knowledge is a process that includes two main levels: the empirical and theoretical, as well as the metatheoretical level (or prerequisite knowledge, which includes the scientific picture of the world, the ideals and norms of scientific research, the philosophical foundations of science). Empirical level of scientific knowledge The main goal of the empirical level is to obtain observational data and form scientific facts, on the basis of which an empirical basis is then built and a system of theoretical constructions is developed. The object under study at the empirical level is reflected primarily from its external connections and manifestations that are accessible to living contemplation. The sensory side of cognition predominates here. Knowledge at the empirical level appears in the form of a scientific fact. A scientific fact is proven knowledge about the characteristics, properties, manifestations of the object being studied.
Theoretical level of scientific knowledge At the theoretical level, phenomena and processes are reflected from their internal connections and patterns, through rational processing of empirical knowledge, with the help of abstractions. The rational side of cognition prevails here. Scientific knowledge at the theoretical level appears in the form of categories of science, scientific problem, scientific hypothesis, scientific principle, law, theory. Categories of science are the most general concepts of a particular scientific discipline (physics, chemistry, biology, etc.). For example, cell, atom, elementary particle, social action, etc. Scientific problem- a form of knowledge, the content of which is what is not yet known by man, but what needs to be known, i.e. this is knowledge about ignorance. A hypothesis is a form of knowledge containing an assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is not determined and needs to be proven.
Scientific principle - the most general fundamental provisions of a theory. The law is a reflection in the form of theoretical statements of essential, necessary, stable, recurring connections and relationships in the objects of research. Theory is the most developed form of scientific knowledge, providing a holistic reflection of the natural and essential connections of a certain area of reality. A theory is a systematized knowledge that collectively explains many facts and describes a certain fragment of reality through laws.
Methods of scientific knowledge Method is a set of certain rules, techniques, methods, norms of knowledge and action. Methods of the empirical level Observation is a purposeful, passive, systematic, systematic perception of objects and phenomena of reality (directly and with the help of instruments), as a result of which a person receives primary knowledge about the external aspects, connections and relationships of the object being studied. Observation allows us to record only what the object of study itself reveals. An experiment is an active, targeted intervention by a researcher in the course of the process being studied, a corresponding change in the object of research or its reproduction in specially created and controlled conditions. The experiment is characterized by controllability and the possibility of repeated repetition.
Description – recording the results of an observation or experiment (i.e., information about an object) using certain notation systems accepted in science. Measurement is a set of actions performed using measuring instruments in order to find the numerical value of the measured quantity in accepted units of measurement. Theoretical level methods Method thought experiment– a system of logical procedures over an idealized object. Idealization is a mental procedure associated with the formation of abstract (idealized) objects that do not really exist in the objective world.
Formalization is the display of the content of knowledge in a symbolic form (formalized language, formulas, graphics, etc.), which contributes to the accuracy of the expression of thoughts. The axiomatic method is a method of constructing a scientific theory in which it is based on certain initial provisions - axioms, from which all the statements of this theory are derived purely logically (i.e. by proof). The hypothetico-deductive method is the creation of a system of deductively interconnected hypotheses from which statements about empirical facts are derived. As a consequence, knowledge is hypothetical or probabilistic in nature.
General logical methods Analysis is a method of cognition that consists in dividing an object of study into its component parts, which are studied independently in relation to the whole. Synthesis is a method of cognition in which the selected components of the object under study are combined into a single whole, taking into account the knowledge obtained during analysis. Abstraction is a mental distraction from a number of properties and relationships of the object being studied, which are considered unimportant for this study, while simultaneously highlighting the properties and characteristics of the object that are of interest to the researcher. Generalization is the establishment of general properties and characteristics of an object. Induction is a method of cognition in which a general conclusion is drawn on the basis of individual facts or premises. Deduction is a method of cognition that consists in drawing specific conclusions from general statements. Analogy is the establishment of similarities in certain aspects, properties and relationships between different objects. Modeling is a method of studying certain objects by reproducing their characteristics on a model (an analogue of a particular fragment of reality).
Section 6. Social philosophy Basic problems and concepts of social philosophy. 2. Society as a developing system. 3. The main problems of the philosophy of history 1.
Social philosophy is a branch of philosophical knowledge that studies the specific features of society and its structure, factors of social dynamics, as well as the most general foundations and patterns of the emergence, development and functioning of society. Society (in a broad sense) is a part of the material world isolated from nature, which represents a historically developing set of relationships between people that develop in the process of their life. Society (in a narrow sense) is a certain stage of human history (feudal society) or a separate specific society (modern Belarusian society). Society is not identical to the sum of individuals; it expresses the totality of those connections and relationships in which these individuals are related to each other.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Main research programs in social science Naturalistic (Holbach, Hobbes, Montesquieu, Mechnikov, Gumilyov, Comte, Spencer, etc.). Culture-centric program (Kant, Windelband, Ricoeur, Dilthey, Herder, Taylor, etc.). Psychological and sociopsychological program (Freud, Pareto, Horney, Tarde). The program of classical and postclassical Marxism (Marx, Fromm, Horkheimer, Marcuse, Adorno) The program of social action by M. Weber. The program of structural functionalism by T. Parsons et al.
Distinctive features of society The way of existence of society is the activity of people (social form of movement). 2. The method of carrying out activities is culture, as a system of extra-biological mechanisms for the existence of society. 3. Social process is the interaction of objective and subjective factors. 4. The laws of nature are manifested in the actions of spontaneous, unconscious forces. Social laws are implemented through the conscious activity of people and cannot function on their own, without human participation. Social laws are laws of human activity. 5. Laws that reveal the essence of social dynamics are statistical in nature (trend laws). 6. The laws of society are historical in nature, that is, they arise along with society and will disappear along with its disappearance. 7. The unity of the laws of society and nature lies in the fact that they act objectively (that is, regardless of whether we know about them or not). 1.
Features of society as a complexly organized self-developing system The presence of a wide variety of different social structures, systems, subsystems. 2. Society is not reduced to the people who make it up, but is a system of extra-individual forms, connections, relationships that a person creates through his activities together with other people. 3. Self-sufficiency of society, i.e. the ability of society, through its active joint activities, to reproduce the necessary conditions of its own existence. 4. Dynamic, non-linear, alternative social development. 1.
Social sphere of society The social subsystem of society is a set of specific historical social communities and groups taken in their interaction and special institutions and institutions that regulate these interactions or relationships. Main types of social structures 1. Ethnic 2. Demographic 3. Settlement 4. Class 5. Professional
Ethnic structure of society Rod is an association of blood relatives who have a common origin, a common place of settlement, common language, common customs and beliefs. A tribe is an association of clans that came from the same root, but subsequently separated from each other. A nationality is a historically established community of people, which is based not on blood relations, but on territorial and neighborly ties between people with a common language, culture, and the beginnings of economic ties. A nation is a historical community of people, which has the following characteristics: common territory, language, economic life, common features of mental makeup, the presence of self-awareness and a specific culture, common spiritual life. They arise during the formation of capitalism. Demographic structure. Population is a continuously reproducing set of people (the population of a city, region, country, the entire Earth). The pace of social development of a society depends on such demographic indicators as: total population; its density; rates of growth; gender and age structure (ratio of men and women, aging of the population); state of psychophysical health; migratory mobility.
Settlement structure. The settlement substructure is a spatial form of organization of society. It expresses the attitude of people to the territory of their habitat, the relations of people among themselves in connection with their belonging to the same or to different types of settlements (intra-village, intra-city and inter-settlement relations). Class structure of society. Classes are large groups of people that differ: 1) according to their place in a historically defined system of social production (exploiter or exploited), 2) according to their relationship (mostly enshrined and formalized in laws) to the means of production (those who own them and those , who are not), 3) according to their role in the social organization of labor (some are organizers and managers of production: slave owners, feudal lords, bourgeois; others are performers: slaves, peasants, proletarians), and therefore, 4) according to methods of obtaining (labor and not labor) and in terms of the size of the share of social wealth that they have (the lion's share, pitiful crumbs, equivalent to labor participation).
The concept of stratification (from Latin stratum - layer, facio - do) - denotes a system of signs and criteria of social stratification, inequality in society, the social structure of society. As signs of social stratification, for example, education, psychology, employment, living conditions, income, qualifications, etc. can be considered. Professional and educational structure. It characterizes society in terms of professional and educational parameters. The professional and educational structure of society was formed later than the ethnic structure. Society acquires a vocational and educational structure only with the final approval of the three great social divisions of labor, when the separation of cattle breeding from agriculture took place; crafts, trade from agriculture; mental labor from physical labor.
The spiritual sphere of society is the sphere of relations between people regarding various kinds of spiritual values, their creation, distribution, dissemination and consumption by all layers of society. The main elements of the spiritual life of society 1. Spiritual activity 2. Spiritual values 3. Spiritual needs of people 4. Spiritual consumption 5. Individual consciousness 6. Social consciousness
Social consciousness is not the sum of the individual consciousnesses of individual people, but is a set of ideas, views, ideas, teachings that exist in society and reflect certain aspects of social existence. Structure of social consciousness 1. Levels of social consciousness 2. Forms of social consciousness Levels of social consciousness There are two approaches to determining the levels of social consciousness: epistemological and sociological. With the epistemological approach, a distinction is made between 1) the level of everyday consciousness and 2) the theoretical level. In the sociological approach, a distinction is made between 1) the level of social psychology and 2) the level of ideology.
Forms of social consciousness 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Morality Religious consciousness Aesthetic consciousness Political consciousness Legal consciousness Scientific consciousness Philosophical consciousness In every form of social consciousness there are all levels of social consciousness
The main problems of the philosophy of history Philosophy of history is a section of philosophical knowledge that deals with the study of historical existence as a whole or world history in all its diversity (ontological side) and analysis of historical knowledge, its specificity, forms and methods (epistemological side. Problem field of philosophy of history 1. Nature, specificity, causes, patterns and factors of the movement of history. 2. Driving forces historical process 3. The problem of criteria for social progress 4. The problem of choosing paths of historical development, etc.
Sources and factors of historical dynamics 1. Socio-economic (economic development, development of equipment and technology, remoteness or proximity to communications (trade, transport, etc.)) 2. Natural-geographical (geographical location, climate, terrain, etc. . p.) 3. Demographic (population, population density, gender and age balance, ratio of urban and rural residents, etc.) 4. Ethnocultural (national mentality, system of spiritual values, etc.).
Speaking about the direction of social development, two main trends can be distinguished: social progress and social regression. Social progress is the progressive movement of society along an ascending line, understood as the complication of the systemic-structural organization of society. Social regression is the opposite direction of social changes leading to simplification and degradation of society. Speaking about the forms of social dynamics, we can distinguish two main forms of social change - evolution and revolution. Evolution in the narrow sense includes only gradual quantitative changes, as opposed to qualitative changes, that is, revolution. Revolution (from Late Latin revolutio - turn, revolution, interruption of gradualness) is a radical qualitative change in the internal structure of the system, that is, a leap that is the connecting link between two evolutionary stages in the development of the system. Among the types of revolution we can distinguish social, industrial, scientific and technical, and cultural revolutions.
Linear and nonlinear approaches to the interpretation of the historical process The linear approach considers history as a single process of progressively ascending (or descending) development of mankind, according to which certain stages in the history of mankind are distinguished. The linear approach to history can include various versions of progressivism (G. Hegel, K. Marx, positivism (Comte)) or regressism (philosophy of the Ancient East, Rousseau, Nietzsche, environmental pessimism). This approach is characterized by an emphasis on stages common to all of humanity. This approach assumes that the development of all sociohistorical organisms follows the same laws. The nonlinear approach allows that the development of different societies can follow their own laws, different from general laws, that there are completely different lines of development. Within the framework of this approach, much attention is paid to the uniqueness, uniqueness and diversity of the historical process, the multiplicity of models of social life. The ideas of a nonlinear approach to history were developed by such thinkers as N. A. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, A. Toynbee, P. Sorokin and others.
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The emergence of PHILOSOPHY
The Emergence of Philosophy The emergence of philosophy is associated with one of the most significant spiritual revolutions experienced by man. Features Philosophy is one of the types of worldview. Worldview appeared before philosophy. The first type of worldview was mythology. In the 7th-6th century BC. a colossal revolution took place in human consciousness - a worldview of a different level emerged. The beginnings of scientific, theoretical knowledge emerged, which were called “protoscience.” The first philosophers were also the first scientists.
Origin of Philosophy Researchers hold different views on the origin of philosophy. It is believed that philosophy arose in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. There is also no single point of view on the question of where philosophy originated. It is generally accepted that philosophy developed in Ancient Greece, Ancient China and Ancient India.
THE EMERGENCE OF PHILOSOPHY Features of the philosophy of Ancient Greece The formation of philosophy occurred with a close connection with the formation scientific knowledge about nature. 2. Philosophy received the name – natural philosophy. 3. Science and philosophy in Ancient Greece were not divided, they formed a single whole.
THE EMERGENCE OF PHILOSOPHY Features of the philosophy of Ancient India Philosophy developed under the great influence of texts. (The Vedas are an ancient literary monument). 2. Less associated with science 3. Closely associated with mythology and religion.
THE EMERGENCE OF PHILOSOPHY Features of philosophy in Ancient China Philosophy had a clear practical orientation 2. The main direction was Confucianism. 3. Little attention was paid to abstract issues; the main attention was paid to the structure of human society and the education of the individual. 4. The only exception was philosophy - Tao (direction of Taoism)
Start ancient Greek philosophy Ancient Greek philosophy originally developed on the Greek mainland, in Ionia, and the port cities of Asia Minor. Philosophical schools
Representatives of the Milesian School
Anaximander (610-547 BC) Basic views: The origin of all things is “apeiron” - the eternal, infinite substance from which everything arose, everything consists and into which everything will turn. God is the first cause, and the Gods become worlds, universes, of which there are many, and they arise and perish cyclically. The world consists of a series of opposites that determine the genesis of the Cosmos. The center of the Universe is the Earth, which is a slice of a cylinder that floats in the air.
Thales (625-547 BC) Basic views: The origin of all things is water - a “phase”, liquid, flowing, and what we drink is only one of its states. Water is associated with the divine principle. Inanimate nature, all things have a soul (hylozoism). The center of the Universe is the Earth, which is a flat disk resting on water. The universe is full of gods.
Anaximenes (585-525 BC) Basic views: The origin of all things is air, which goes through a number of stages in its change: fire - air - winds-clouds - earth - stones. The air included in the above series is not identical with the original. Air is the source of life and mental phenomena. The Earth is a flat disk floating in the air. The gods are identified with Nature.
Philosophy of Heraclitus of Ephesus The second center of ancient Greek philosophy in Asia Minor after Miletus was the city of Ephesus, the birthplace of the philosopher Heraclitus (c. 530-470 BC). Heraclitus is one of the founders of dialectics, whose teaching is the most striking expression of the spontaneous dialecticism of ancient Greek philosophy
The main provisions of the teachings of Heraclitus Fire is the basis of everything that exists. This is the beginning, in perpetual motion and change. What passes from one state to another, thanks to the struggle of the opposites that form it, serves as the basis for the entire development of the world. Nature is in a process of continuous change, and of all natural substances fire is the most capable of change. Therefore, “this cosmos, one and the same for everything that exists, was not created by any God or man, but it always was, is and will be an eternally living fire, igniting in measures and extinguishing in measures” (fragment of Heraclitus). The second defining element of Heraclitus’s worldview is the statement about the universal fluidity of things, changeability. "You can't step into the same river twice." “We enter and do not enter the same river, we are the same and not the same” (fragment of Heraclitus). Everything happens out of necessity and from “opposite exchange.” Necessity is the universal law “logos”, which creates being from “opposite movement”, i.e. Here Heraclitus speaks of an internally contradictory flow, thereby approaching a dialectical understanding of development. The doctrine of flow is closely related to the doctrine of the transition of one opposite to another, i.e. Heraclitus comes close to posing the problem of the unity of opposites. By exchanging for each other, opposites become identical to each other. Contradiction (struggle) is the driving force of all change and development. The theory of knowledge is based on an understanding of the relationship between sensory and rational knowledge, and the task of knowledge is to penetrate into the essence of Nature in its eternal change. The basis of the community and truth of human knowledge is “logos,” that is, the unity, universality and immutability of the world order.
Philosophy of the Pythagoreans PYTHAGOREANS - followers of Pythagoras (2nd half of VI - beginning of V n. up. "), ancient Greek philosopher and a mathematician who founded a religious union in the Greek city of Croton
Teachings of Pythagoras The doctrine of number as the essence of the world. Reincarnation
ELEATES - representatives of the Eleatic school of philosophy, which existed in the 6th - 5th centuries. BC. in the ancient Greek polis of Elea on the territory of modern Italy. Representatives: Eleatic Philosophy Xenophanes Parmenides Zeno and Melissus
Basic provisions of Eleatic philosophy The founder of this school is considered to be Xenophanes. He first raised the question of the origin of the gods. From his point of view, man is not the creation of the gods, but, on the contrary, the gods are the creation of man, the fruit of his imagination.