Animism in the modern world. Animism is when and why animism arose

The history of the development of religion has gone through a long and difficult path. In their primitive consciousness, the most ancient people deified various natural phenomena. This is how the first forms of religious ideas appeared. Let's consider what animism is, what its specifics are and its role in the development of religious ideas.

The Birth of Religion

It will probably never be possible to find out what exactly caused the emergence in the primitive consciousness of the desire to believe in the existence of higher - divine powers. Most likely, faced with powerful forces of nature - thunderstorms, snowfalls, hurricanes, downpours - and being unable to explain their nature, our distant ancestors began to believe that each phenomenon was controlled by its own spirit. So, there is the spirit of the wind, the spirit of the sun, the spirit of the earth and so on. To appease these invisible but omnipotent creatures, people began to perform various rituals and make sacrifices to them. This is how the first religious ideas appeared.

Spirits have not yet had any material embodiment. Later, when a person learns to build cities and engages in agriculture, cattle breeding, and crafts, his dependence on the forces of nature will decrease. Therefore, the gods who replaced the spirits will take on a human form.

So, the first religious beliefs - animism, totemism, fetishism - appeared in the era of the primitive communal system, when people were engaged in hunting and gathering, lived in caves or primitive dugouts, and were already creating primitive weapons and tools for themselves. Most likely, they did not yet know fire at that time.

Types of proto-religions

Religious researchers and historians identify 4 proto-religions:

• Animism.
• Fetishism.
• Totemism.
• Magic.

We are unlikely to ever know which of them appeared earlier; scientists believe that they arose at approximately the same time, while the beliefs of individual ancient tribes intricately intertwined the features of various proto-religions. Let's consider what animism is and how it differs from other forms of ancient religious ideas.

Definition

In scientific literature, the term “animism” is usually understood as the deification of the forces of nature, belief in the soul and immaterial spirits that exists in most ancient beliefs. This proto-religion is very important, since it is within its framework that such a complex idea as belief in an immaterial component, the soul, is formed, and it is on this basis that the doctrine of the immortal soul will later be created.

The term itself was first used by the German explorer Georg Stahl in 1708 and comes from the Latin word anima - soul.

Features of belief

What features were inherent in this ancient belief?

• Belief in spirits of natural phenomena.
• Spirits of ancestors.
• The presence of protective entities.

It was within the framework of animism that the funeral cult appeared. Even in the times of the Cro-Magnons, a tradition arose of burying the dead in the best jewelry, with weapons, and household items. The more noble and respected the deceased was, the more tools and weapons were placed in his grave. It would seem, why do this, it would be much more reasonable to transfer these things to the living, to use them in hunting or in war. But the ancient people already had some idea that after the death of the physical shell, his spirit would continue on its way. And such ritual ceremonies emphasized tribute to the deceased.

Another example is the cult of ancestors. For example, in Western New Guinea, primitive peoples previously had a tradition of keeping a korvar - the skull of an ancestor - in their house, which was in a place of honor. The skull was later replaced with an image of an ancestor. It was believed that it protects the home and brings good luck to members of the clan.

Both cults say that our ancestors believed in an afterlife, and their ideas about the world were not limited only to material ones.

Forms

Let us consider the forms of animism, the oldest of which was the belief that behind every natural phenomenon there is its own spirit. Unable to understand the essence of this or that natural disaster, ancient people began to spiritualize the forces of nature, believing that each of them was controlled by a spirit.

Gradually, spirits become intelligent, endowed with an external appearance, characteristic character traits, myths and a whole system of mythology appear, within the framework of which man sought to explain the world around him. Animism, gradually developing, turned into polytheism, characteristic of Ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, Slavic countries and many others.

The most important feature of animism is the division of the world into material and spiritual. Therefore, another form of belief is the belief in the existence of some kind of afterlife, where the human soul ends up after the death of the body. It is interesting that similar ideas appear among ancient peoples who were geographically separated from each other.

Totemism

Another proto-religion, the remnants of which can be found today in the peculiarities of the religious beliefs of backward tribes, is totemism. Let's consider the definition, features of this idea and compare totemism and animism. The following distinctive features can be distinguished:

• Ancient people believed that every person (as well as tribe, clan) has a certain ancestor - an animal or plant, which is called a totem.
• Most often, the totem became the representative of the flora or fauna that lived in the territory where the tribe lived.
• There was a mystical connection between the tribe and the totem animal.
• The totem provided protection to its tribe.
• The presence of a system of taboos - prohibitions. Thus, the totem animal could not be killed while hunting or eaten.

The emergence of this proto-religion, as researchers believe, was due to the fact that in the life of ancient people animals and plants were very important, they served as the main source of food, without them the very existence of humanity would have been impossible.

Difference from animism

Speaking about what animism is and how it differs from totemism, it should be noted that in the first case there were many spirits, each of which was responsible for its own natural phenomenon or element. And the properties of a totem were endowed with one specific animal or plant. In some tribes, for example, among the Indians, both beliefs are intertwined: many tribes have their own totems, and they believe in the existence of nature spirits.

In proto-religions, one can also note a commonality - if the religion of animism involved rituals to appease spirits (both natural and ancestors), then totemism implied the appeasement of totemic creatures.

Fetishism

Another proto-religion is fetishism, that is, the belief that an object in the material world acts as a carrier of higher magical power. Absolutely any object to which the primitive consciousness assigned magical functions could become a fetish. Thus, a boulder stone that somehow attracted ancient man could become an object of worship.

Most often, such a belief in its pure form can be found among African tribes who worship figurines of gods, bones, and plants.

What are the differences between fetishism and animism? These forms of belief rather complement each other. Thus, a fetish could become the material embodiment of a certain spirit; by worshiping it, primitive man hoped to appease the spirit itself. Most often, there were several fetishes, like the spirits themselves; they were asked for help, rituals were performed in their honor, and they were thanked for good luck in the hunt.

It is interesting that the remnants of fetishism can be traced even in the world's leading religions. The veneration of holy relics, icons, statues of Christ and the Virgin Mary - this is what this ancient belief has grown into. In Buddhism there are sacred stupas, the worship of which is close to the veneration of a fetish. Fetishism also survived as a belief in amulets and talismans.

Magic

Another ancient proto-religion is magic, and it often organically intertwines the features of the three previous ones. Let's compare magic and animism:

• Magic implies belief in a higher power, just like animism.
• A person endowed with a special gift - a magician, a sorcerer - could come into contact with them and even make sure that these forces provided protection in a hunt or war. Nothing like this was observed in animism; they tried to appease the spirits, but people could not influence them in any way.

Gradually, many tribes had their own magicians, who were engaged only in conducting special rituals, they were respected, and even the bravest warriors were often afraid of them.

The magic has survived in our time; many people believe that with the help of special rituals one can attract good luck in business and achieve the favor of the chosen one. Sometimes modern black sorcerers use their abilities with malicious intent, sending curses. Some people are skeptical about magic, but since this belief has existed for many thousands of years, its significance should not be completely denied.

Shamanism

No less interesting is the phenomenon of shamanism, which, despite its antiquity, is still practiced to this day. Shamans perform their rituals, during which they fall into a trance and communicate with the world of spirits. The purposes of such rituals are quite varied:

• Bringing good luck on the hunt.
• Healing the sick.
• Helping the tribe in a difficult situation.
• Prediction of the future.

Let's consider the features of animism and shamanism. Both religious beliefs are associated with the world of spirits, but if the first implies belief in their existence and direct participation in human destinies, then shamans, plunging into a trance, communicated with these immaterial beings, asked them for advice, and asked for help.

That is why shamans were often assigned the functions of a priest; they were respected and revered.

Animism in the modern world

We looked at what animism is and how it is related to other proto-religions. It is interesting that this ancient religious concept has survived to this day; It is precisely through the observation of primitive peoples living at a distance from civilization that it helps researchers fill in the problems in the study of the history of religions. Similar beliefs can be found among indigenous African peoples, the Sami, and the Papuans of Oceania.

The most ancient proto-religions indicate that the consciousness of primitive man was not so primitive; he understood that, in addition to the material world, there was also a spiritual sphere. And using the means within his power he tried to explain incomprehensible objects and phenomena.

The most ancient forms of religion in origin include: magic, fetishism, totemism, erotic rituals, and funeral cult. They are rooted in the living conditions of primitive people.

Animism. Beliefs in ancient human society were closely related to primitive mythical views and they were based on animism (from the Latin anima - spirit, soul), endowing natural phenomena with human qualities. The term was introduced into scientific use by the English ethnologist E. B. Tyler (1832 - 1917) in the fundamental work “Primitive Culture” (1871) to designate the initial stage in the history of the development of religion. Tylor considered animism to be the "minimum of religion." The poison of this theory is the assertion that initially any religion originated from the belief of the “savage philosopher” in the ability of the “soul”, “spirit” to separate from the body. Irrefutable proof of this for our primitive ancestors were the facts they observed, such as dreams, hallucinations, cases of lethargic sleep, false death and other inexplicable phenomena. In primitive culture, animism was a universal form of religious beliefs; the process of development of religious ideas, rites and rituals began with it. Animistic ideas about the nature of the soul predetermined the relationship of primitive man to death, burial, and the dead.

Magic. The most ancient form of religion is magic (from the Greek megeia - magic), which is a series of symbolic actions and rituals with spells and rituals. The problem of magic still remains one of the least clear among the problems in the history of religions. Some scientists, like the famous English religious scholar and ethnologist James Freder (1854-1941), see in it the forerunner of religion. The German ethnologist and sociologist A. Vierkandt (1867-1953) considers magic as the main source of the development of religious ideas. Russian ethnographer L.Ya. Sternberg (1861-1927) considers it a product of early animistic beliefs. One thing is certain - “magic brightened up, if not entirely, then to a significant extent, the thinking of primitive man and was closely connected with the development of belief in the supernatural.” Primitive magical rites are difficult to limit from instinctive and reflexive actions associated with material practice. Based on this role that magic plays in people’s lives, the following types of magic can be distinguished: harmful, military, sexual (love), healing and protective, fishing, meteorological and other minor types of magic.

The psychological mechanism of a magical act is usually largely predetermined by the nature and direction of the ritual being performed. In some types of magic, rituals of the contact type predominate, in others - imitative ones. The first includes, for example, healing magic, the second - meteorological. The roots of magic are closely related to human practice. Such, for example, are hunting magic dances, which usually represent imitation of animals, often with the use of animal skins. Perhaps it was hunting dances that were depicted in the drawings of a primitive artist in the Paleolithic caves of Europe. The most stable manifestation of hunting magic is hunting prohibitions, superstitions, omens, and beliefs. Like any religion, magical beliefs are only a fantastic reflection in the minds of people of external forces dominating them. The specific roots of different types of magic are in the corresponding types of human activity. They arose and were preserved where and when man was helpless before the forces of nature.

One of the most ancient, and independent, roots of religious beliefs and rituals is associated with the area of ​​gender relations - this is love magic, erotic rituals, various types of religious and sexual prohibitions, beliefs about human sexual relations with spirits, the cult of love deities. Many types of magic are still used today. For example, one of the most stable types of magic is sex magic. Its rituals often continue to exist today in their simplest and most direct form. Magical ideas determined the entire content side of primitive art, which can be called magical-religious.

Fetishism. A type of magic is fetishism (from the French fetiche - talisman, amulet, idol) - the worship of inanimate objects to which supernatural properties are attributed. Objects of worship - feteshism - can be stones, sticks, trees, any objects. They can be either natural or man-made. The forms of veneration of fetishes are just as varied: from making sacrifices to them to driving nails into them in order to cause pain to the spirit and thereby more accurately force it to fulfill the benefit addressed to it. Belief in amulets (from Arabic gamala - to wear) goes back to primitive feteshism and magic. It was associated with a specific object that was prescribed supernatural magical power, the ability to protect its owner from misfortunes and illnesses. In Siberia, Neolithic fishermen hung stone fish from their nets. Fetishism is also widespread in modern religions, for example, the worship of the black stone in Mecca among Muslims, and numerous “miraculous” icons and relics in Christianity.

Totemism. In the history of religions of many ancient peoples, the worship of animals and trees played an important role. The world as a whole seemed to the savage animate; trees and animals were no exception to the rule. The savage believed that they possessed souls similar to his own, and communicated with them accordingly. When a primitive man called himself by the name of an animal, called it his “brother” and refrained from killing it, such an animal was called totemic (from the northern Indian ototem - its kind). Totemism is the belief in consanguineous ties between a clan and certain plants or animals (less commonly, natural phenomena). The life of the entire clan and each of its members individually depended on the totem. People also believed that the totem was incomprehensibly embodied in newborns (incarnation). A common occurrence was the attempts of primitive man to influence the totem in various magical ways, for example, in order to cause an abundance of corresponding animals or fish, birds and plants and ensure the material well-being of the clan. It is likely that the famous cave paintings and sculptures of the Upper Paleolithic era in Europe are associated with totemism. Traces and remnants of totemism are also found in the religions of class societies in China. In ancient times, the Yin tribe (Yin dynasty) revered the swallow as a totem. The influence of totemic survivals on world and national religions is traced. For example, the ritual eating of totem meat in more developed religions developed into the ritual eating of a sacrificial animal. Some authors believe that the Christian sacrament of communion is also rooted in a distant totem ritual.

Literature:

1. Ancient civilizations. Under the general editorship. Bongard-Levina G.M. M., Mysl, 1989

2. Dmitrieva N.A. Brief history of arts M., Art, 1985

3. Lurie S.A History of Greece St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg University Publishing House, 1993

4. Lyubimov L. The Art of the Ancient World M., Education, 1980

ANIMISM(from Latin anima - soul) - belief in spirits (soul) as the cause of life and natural phenomena; the lowest stage of religious development, expressed in the spiritualization of natural phenomena.

In a metaphysical sense, animism is a worldview in which the soul is the basic principle of life. Found in Aristotle and the Stoics; It received special development during the Renaissance in the doctrine of the world soul. The founder of Greek natural philosophy, Thales of Miletus, believed that all bodies, set in motion by their inherent internal force, are endowed with a soul - “all are full of gods.” The property of the soul is movement and attraction (that’s why a magnet has a soul, because it attracts iron). Thales represented this mind or soul as something material, existing separately from the visible world. In ancient Rome, Lucretius called spirit (animus) an inexplicably subtle matter, which (according to the idea of ​​his teacher Epicurus) in the form of especially subtle particles flows from the surface of all material objects, acting on the senses and producing sensations. Being a type of matter, the soul, according to Lucretius, is active, active, and capable of subordinating the body. Aristotle, Paracelsus and Cardano considered the soul to be the sculptor of the body.

The question of the origin of religious ideas interests many. Did religion appear immediately in its modern form? Did primitive society already have a cult of supernatural beings - God or many gods? Certainly not. Religion, like all social phenomena, has changed and developed, having come a long way to its modern state. However, nowadays in religious studies it has become a generally accepted point of view that humanity did not have a non-religious period. Since the formation of sapient man, he had ideas about certain forces higher in relation to him, with which he tried to establish certain relationships. Moreover, it turns out that the very evidence of the presence of consciousness and abstract ideas is most often found in the peculiar pre-religious ideas and activities of ancient people. The time of their appearance coincides with the time when modern man (Homo Sapiens) emerged and a clan organization was formed - from approximately 40 thousand years to 18 thousand years ago (Late Paleolithic).

Evidence of religious beliefs:

1. These are burials associated with a cult. Skeletons with various equipment and decorations were found; many of them are painted with ocher, which apparently was associated with the idea of ​​​​blood, which is a sign of life. It follows from this that the idea was formed that the deceased somehow continues to live.

2. Numerous monuments of fine art appear: sculpture, painting in caves (rock paintings). Some of them have a certain relationship to religious ideas and rituals. These rock paintings were discovered at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 19th century. XX centuries. In these drawings, animals are well depicted, and people are depicted schematically, often as fantastic zooanthropomorphic figures or people dressed in animal masks. There are female figurines that, according to researchers, depicted the mistress of the fire and hearth. Traces of a similar image have been preserved in the mythology of the peoples of Siberia.

At the end of the Paleolithic (ended approximately 10 thousand years ago), images of animals and people disappeared, and drawings of a more schematic style appeared. Perhaps they are associated with religious and mystical ideas. Painted pebbles (with geometric patterns) are common - apparently totemic emblems. Changes in the Neolithic (8 - 3 thousand years ago) are expressed in the fact that burials become more numerous, but monotonous. The burial grounds contain household items, jewelry, dishes, and weapons. Inequality is evident in the burials. Corpse burning is also practiced, but there is no explanation for it. Religious beliefs remain unclear. The social basis of the cult was the maternal race, female deities were revered.

It can definitely be said that there was a complex of ideas that are collectively called primitive beliefs. The main source of our knowledge about them is communication with tribes of people who remained at the level of development of the tribal system, living in remote places in America, Australia, Africa, and the islands of Oceania. What are these beliefs?

Animism and animatism

One of the first is animism (from Latin animus - soul). It represents belief in souls and spirits: living people and dead ancestors have souls, they personify the forces of nature. The host of nature spirits is especially diverse and numerous. The spirits of the elements could be both benevolent and hostile, threatening the well-being of people. Therefore, sacrifices were made to them in order to appease and win over people.

One of the first researchers of primitive culture and religion, the Englishman E. Taylor (1832 - 1917), believed that it was the belief in the existence of spiritual entities that represents the “minimum of religion,” its “first cell” from which any religious ideas begin. The primitive savage could be inspired by phenomena such as dreams, loss of consciousness, and death to think about the existence of the soul as a special substance on which human life depends. Ideas about the soul lead to belief in an afterlife.

The consequence of animism is the spiritualization of all nature, anthropomorphism (from the Greek anthropos - man and morphe - form, appearance) - assimilation to man, endowing natural phenomena, animals, objects with human properties (for example, consciousness), as well as the representation of God in human form. Both living beings (including plants) and objects of inorganic nature were represented as animate: stones, water sources, stars and planets. It was believed that they were connected by the same blood-related relationships that prevail in the human community (tribe, clan). So, for example, the Sun and Moon are brother and sister - they say in many myths.

However, further study of surviving primitive tribes refuted Taylor's theory of animism as the original form of religious belief. The English anthropologist R. Marett (1866 - 1943) put forward the theory of animatism (from the Latin animatus - animate), which indicates a different nature of early religious ideas.

Animatism is the belief in an impersonal, supernatural, immaterial force that operates in all objects and in some people. Can be used by a person for good and evil deeds. The Melanesians did not yet have concepts about souls and spirits; they explained the animation of objects and animals by the action of this force. It is called "mana" ("power") in Melanesia and Polynesia, and among the American Indians it is called "orenda", but it may not have a name. There is a taboo in relation to mana: do not dare to approach it frivolously or wickedly.

Another name for Marett's theory is dynamism. In modern religious studies, it is recognized as a proven fact that the idea of ​​“mana” is older than the belief in souls and spirits.

Totemism

Totemism (from the word “ototeman”, which means “his kind.” Came from the North American Ojibwe Indians) - the belief in the existence of a family connection between a group of people (clan, tribe) and some kind of animal, less often - plants, but it is possible -an object or natural phenomenon. This type of animal (plant, etc.) was called a totem and was sacred. It would be wrong to call him a deity; he is a close relative, an ancestor. The totem could not be touched, killed, eaten, or caused any harm or insult. A totem animal that accidentally dies is buried and mourned as a fellow tribesman. In festivities dedicated to the totem, it is honored as the ancestor. Totemism was ubiquitous. The totem gave the name to the entire clan (tribe), all its members call themselves “bears” or “turtles”, feeling unity and kinship. As researchers of totemism emphasize, this is not a physiological relationship, but a social one, a feeling of an inextricable connection with the collective, without which a person cannot exist and with which he completely identifies himself. Totemism was a form of contrasting the clan and everything connected with it with the rest of the world; it was a form of separating humanity from the environment. People were moving away from complete unity with nature, which is characteristic of animals, but the subject here was not an individual person, but the entire primitive commune.

Primitive man does not yet have individualism; he does not separate his interests from the interests of the clan. The strength of the clan (tribe) is felt as the strength of the individual, all decisions are generally accepted, shared by everyone without exception. The natural result of such a worldview is blood feud - anyone (or everyone) takes revenge for harm, murder, insult inflicted on his fellow tribesman (totem) by a person of another clan-tribe. At the same time, revenge extends not only to the offender, but to any person from his family.

Totemism also expresses a shared connection with one’s land, its flora and fauna, life without which is unthinkable for primitive man. From the point of view of modern man, the belief that people descended from some kind of animal, especially plants, seems quite absurd. It is all the more surprising to discover how great the social role of totemism was.

The totem was depicted on the tribe’s coat of arms, served as an object of veneration, and most importantly, it was the basis for the creation of a whole series of taboos. Taboos are prohibitions, the violation of which is punishable by death. It was totemism that underlay the rituals, ceremonies and holidays of ancient clans; it is totemic posts and tablets that ethnographers always find at the sites of primitive people, noting their diversity. The tools of labor did not undergo such changes as the cult and ritual side of people's lives.

One of the well-known rites of the totemist society is the initiation rite. Tests are conducted in which young men must show their strength, agility, and ability to endure pain. As a result of this ritual, they become adult men - hunters, warriors with all their rights and responsibilities. As we can see, there is no problem of socialization here; infantilism and lack of understanding of one's social role are excluded. The tasks of educating and reproducing the social structure and strengthening the normative order are being solved. This ritual was a holiday during which feuds with other tribes ceased; all members of the tribe participated in it. True, participation in some of these competitions was prohibited for women. Adults passed on to the young men knowledge (myths) that should only be known to the men of the tribe. There were also initiations for girls.

A few more words about the system of taboos, based on totemism. It represents the most important cultural phenomenon: the systematization of the world in terms of human values. The world of culture excludes chaos, everything in it is filled with meaning and harmonized: there is the highest, good, praiseworthy, and there is base, evil, which is condemned and taboo in culture. There are forbidden (for ancient people often associated with uncleanliness) things, actions, words, places, animals, people. The taboo was closely connected with the magical-religious concept of purity - filth. By breaking a taboo, a person became unclean. And everything that was “unclean” was taboo. For example, unclean animals and plants are food taboos. The world is hierarchized, there is heavenly and earthly, up and down, holy and sinful, clean and dirty, etc. Each thing and phenomenon must have its strictly fixed place. A socio-cosmic order was emerging, the boundaries between different classes of things were taboo. The basis for such ordering of the world was myth.

In the way of life of primitive clans and tribes, three types of the most important taboos that determined relationships between people can be distinguished:

1) Don't kill your totem. This meant a ban not only on killing the animal - the totemic ancestor, but - most importantly - on killing a fellow tribesman. After all, all people of a given clan (tribe) were called by the name of the totem animal. They felt like blood relatives. It was not forbidden to kill people of another kind; all moral norms applied only to “our own people.”

2) Don't eat your totem. The sacred animal (plant) was not eaten. Along with the ban on eating a totem, there were many other food bans, the violation of which was also taboo.

3) Do not enter into marriage with your totem. Marriage relations between men and women of the same gender were prohibited. As studies by ethnographers and anthropologists show, at the initial stage of the formation of human society, there was an exogamous marriage - women and men of a clan entered into marital relations only with representatives of another clan. The relationship was on the maternal side, the children remained in the woman’s clan (tribe) and were raised together. It turned out that the men did not raise their own children, and their children lived in a different clan. This system of relations excluded rivalry between men of the clan and their struggle for women. Mutual assistance, cooperation developed, feelings and relationships between men and women became more humane, they left the power of purely physiological attraction. An exogamous marriage could have developed because people in those days did not know about the existence of a cause-and-effect relationship between physical intimacy and the birth of children. They believed that children are born as a result of the spirit of a totemic ancestor entering the body of a woman 1 . We find echoes of such views in myths about conception from animals, from gods who turned into animals, or from natural elements (for example, the fertilization of Danai by Zeus, who turned into golden shower), in the idea of ​​​​the immaculate conception of Buddha, I. Christ, etc. These motifs are found in many religions.

It is interesting to note that the prohibition against killing and eating a totem animal had one important exception. At the festivities dedicated to the totem, the climax was the solemn ritual of sacrificing the totem and eating its flesh, which gave people the experience of their unity and kinship. This ritual murder and “feast” was accompanied by a general orgy, during which the intra-totemic sexual taboo was abolished. Moreover, breaking a taboo was a ritual duty for every member of the clan (tribe) 2 .

Speaking about ancient prohibitions, it should be emphasized that the taboo concerned not only the unclean, condemned, and violating order. Sacred powers, objects, actions, people were also taboo. Thus, it was required to show reverence for things recognized as sacred, endowed with special power or spirit, to show reverence towards elders in age and social status - not to dare to mock, scold, etc.

There are numerous manifestations of totemism in the beliefs of ancient peoples: these are the cults of sacred animals (for example, cats, bulls - among the Egyptians, cows - among the Hindus), the image of their gods in the form of half-humans - half-animals (for example, the Egyptian goddess of love and fun Bastet with the head of a cat), the image of a centaur (half-man - half-horse) in Greek mythology, the sphinx among the Egyptians and Greeks; the motive of turning people into animals and many others. etc.

Fetishism

Fetishism (from the Portuguese “fetiso”, which means “amulet, magical thing”) is the veneration of inanimate objects to which people attribute properties such as the ability to heal, protect from enemies, misfortunes, damage and the evil eye, and evoke love. This type of belief was first discovered by Portuguese sailors in West Africa in the 15th century. Later it turned out that a similar idea exists among all primitive peoples. Any object that struck a person’s imagination in some way could become a fetish. It could be a stone of an unusual shape or a piece of wood, part of an animal’s body (teeth, fangs, bones, dried paws, etc.). Later, people began to make fetishes themselves in the form of wooden, stone or bone figurines, and gold sculptures. They created both small and large figures, called idols, and began to worship them as deities, believing that the spirit of the deity resided in them. For failure to fulfill their requests, they could punish such an idol by beating them with whips.

Fetishism lives in modern ideas about the protective power of amulets and talismans, the healing or destructive effects of precious and semi-precious stones, etc.

Magic

The next most important element in the complex of primitive beliefs is magic. The word "magic" comes from the Greek "mageia", which means "witchcraft", "magic", "witchcraft". Magic can be defined as actions and rituals designed to influence natural phenomena, animals and humans to achieve specific practical results.

Such magic is based on ideas about the necessary connections between phenomena, which the magician knows and uses, as if “winding up the springs,” including a mechanism of action that will necessarily lead to the desired result. A detailed study of magic was carried out by the Scottish ethnographer and religious scholar D. Fraser. He summarized the results of his research in the book “The Golden Bough” 1, analyzing various types of magic and magical practices of different peoples, from antiquity to modern times. The most important thing is that D. Frazer tried to penetrate into the essence of magical activity, to understand its principles and internal logic.

Fraser's conclusions are striking and paradoxical. He showed that magic is fundamentally different from religion and is essentially similar to science. Can we agree with this? Perhaps yes. The English ethnographer found that magical thinking is based on two important principles.

Principle I – Like produces like, the effect is like its cause. This is the so-called law of similarity, the effect of which people saw in all surrounding phenomena and processes. Homeopathic or imitative magic was practiced on the basis of this principle or law. Its essence is that any action is carried out on models or in an artificial environment, and this gives people confidence that in reality everything will happen just as successfully, the goal will be achieved.

Let's look at possible options for imitative magic. For example, harmful magic. To harm a person, their image is mutilated. Thus, the Malays made a puppet the length of a person’s foot and affected its different parts (eyes, stomach, head, etc.). It was believed that in order to kill a person, one had to pierce the doll representing him right through from the head down, then wrap him in a shroud, pray and bury this puppet in the middle of the road so that the victim would step on it. Then a lethal (fatal) outcome for the person himself is inevitable.

In order to heal from illnesses, according to the same logic, an action is performed on someone or something else, and as a result the person should recover. For example, a doctor writhes from an imaginary illness, and a real patient nearby recovers. Another option is used in the treatment of jaundice. The magician transfers yellowness from a sick person to birds. A yellow canary and a parrot are tied to the bed in which the patient is located. It is coated with vegetable yellow paint, which is then washed off, saying that this yellowness and disease are transferred to yellow birds. An interesting method of getting rid of acne, which is given in homeopathic magic: you need to watch for a falling star and at the moment of its fall, wipe the acne off your face with a rag. There will be no more of them.

In production magic, for example, to succeed in fishing, the Indians of Colombia lower a stuffed fish into the water, catch it with a net, and then catch real fish, confident in the success of their business.

Principle II – things that once come into contact with each other continue to interact at a distance after direct contact has ceased. This is called the law of contact or contagion. In relation to a person, this means that if you take such components of the body as sweat, blood, saliva, hair, teeth, nails, then you can influence a person through them - for a positive (medicinal, for example) or harmful purpose. The same goes for the clothes that a person wore - they retain a connection with the owner. Based on the law of infection (contact), primitive people created contagious magic.

There are also a lot of variants of contagious magic. For example, in order to avoid the harmful influence of enemies, warriors underwent a purification ritual after a battle. They had to go through the fire of the fire. The natives of one of the tribes had a custom: after communicating with people of a hostile tribe, they entered their village with lighted torches in their hands, so as not to harm their own. Many variants of contagious magic are used to sever the connection with the soul of the deceased. The most common ritual was for widows and widowers to cut their hair (for example, in the Sihanaka tribe in Madagascar, among the Australian Warramunga tribe, etc.). Another option is to burn the hair with hot brand to the very roots directly on the head (tribes of Central Australia).

To strengthen the connection with the soul of the deceased, a person left a strand of his hair in the grave of a relative (common among the Arabs, Greeks, North American Indians, Tahitians, Tasmanians, and Australian aborigines). It was also common to give the blood of relatives as a gift to the deceased. Blood was shed on the dead in Ancient Rome, Australia, on the islands of Tahiti and Sumatra, in America (Indians) and other regions. The mourners tore their cheeks so that blood would flow, smashed their heads, made cuts on their arms and thighs so that the blood would flow onto the deceased or into his grave.

Communication is also carried out through images - drawings, and in modern versions - photographs of a person. Fairy tales describe how relatives learn about the fate of the traveler from the remaining personal belongings (for example, a dagger on which blood appears if its owner is in trouble).

D. Frazer emphasizes that a magician (shaman), acting according to magical principles, does not pray to gods or spirits, does not appeal to their mercy, does not expect a miracle, but “winds up the springs”, acts in accordance with the pattern that he sees in the natural and human world. He proceeds from a logic that may be false, but this does not make his actions supernatural. Like a scientist, he relies on his knowledge and skills.

Using a large amount of ethnographic material, D. Frazer shows that magical practice is the same among a wide variety of peoples; he concludes that magic unites people, while different religions often lead to misunderstanding and conflict. Magic, according to D. Frazer, preceded religion; it is magic that is the “primary cell” of religion.

However, the magical practice that has existed since ancient times is not limited to actions based on two principles of primitive thinking, which were studied by D. Frazer and other researchers (for example, B. Malinovsky). There is magic as a way of interacting with the supersensible world through symbolic actions, verbal formulas (spells), and immersion in unusual states of consciousness. Researchers such as the Spanish mystic philosopher Carlos Castaneda (See: Castaneda K. The Teachings of Don Juan: The Way of Knowledge of the Yaqui Indians - St. Petersburg: ABC-Classics, 2004), American anthropologist, psychologist, ethnographer Michael Harner ( his books: “The Way of the Shaman”, “Jivaro: People of Sacred Waterfalls”, “Hallucinogens and Shamanism” have not yet been fully translated into Russian), etc. Here magic appears as secret knowledge, incomparable with scientific knowledge. Shamans 1 travel in the world of spirits, gain knowledge about the past of the Earth, about the structure of the Universe, about life after death. The most important thing is that they heal people with the help of helping spirits. M. Harner, who lived for several years among the Jivaro Indians (in Ecuador) and the Conibo Indians (in the Amazon in Peru) and became familiar with shamanic practice, believes that shamans are the custodians of wonderful ancient techniques for treating and preventing diseases. Their methods are remarkably similar all over the world, even among people of different cultures separated by seas and continents. A shaman can be either a man or a woman. Shamans enter an altered state of consciousness, come into contact with hidden reality and acquire knowledge and power to help people. As the famous American ethnographer M. Eliade writes, “the shaman is characterized by a trance in which the soul leaves the body and ascends to heaven or descends to the underworld” 1 . M. Harner calls this altered state of consciousness “shamanic state of consciousness.” Being in this state, the shaman experiences inexpressible joy, reverent delight in front of the beautiful worlds that open before him. Everything that happens to the shaman in this state resembles dreams, but they happen in reality, in them the shaman is able to control his actions and control the course of events. The shaman gains access to a new Universe, which bestows him with knowledge. On a journey, he chooses the path himself, but does not know what awaits him. He is a traveler who relies on his own strength; the shaman returns with new discoveries, his knowledge and ability to help and heal the patient increase. To enter the shamanic state of consciousness, drumming, rattle sounds, singing and dancing are needed. Shamans are able to see in the dark - both literally and figuratively, that is, to recognize other people's secrets, future events, things hidden from people. Shamans from the Jivaro and Conibo tribes take a special potion made from a mixture of ayahuasca and kava herbs to enter an altered state of consciousness and travel to other worlds. However, there are shamanic practices that do not involve the use of narcotic drugs - they are practiced by Australian aborigines and North American Indians (Wintun, Pomo, Salish, Sioux tribes). M. Harner also went through all the stages of shamanic practice and traveled, gaining amazing knowledge about the past of the Earth, about the emergence of life. He notes that this practice cannot be explained based on the logic and knowledge of modern man, but it is effective, “works,” and this is the main thing. 2

So, we have some idea of ​​primitive beliefs. They are still very far from the developed religions of subsequent millennia; they have no concept of gods, especially the one God - the Spirit and Creator. However, in all modern religions we will find elements of these beliefs: ideas about the soul and spirits, belief in the supernatural properties of objects (amulets and talismans), methods of communication with another, spiritual world.

Discipline: Cultural studies
Kind of work: Control
Topic: Animism as the basis of religious practice

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Animism as the basis of religious practice

Introduction 3

1. Belief in spirits (according to ethnographic data) 4

1.1. The Essence of Animism 4

1.2. Animism among various peoples 7

2. Siberian shamanism as a manifestation of polyconsciousness 8

2.1. The essence of shamanism as a holistic worldview 8

2.2. Features of Siberian shamanism 8

Conclusion 14

List of used literature 15

Introduction

For many centuries, animistic ideas have served as a determining factor in the development of culture and spirituality of many peoples of the world, including many peoples of modern Russia. Moreover, at present, various forms of animism dominate in many regions of the planet.

Animism and animist traditions served as the spiritual basis for the development of all religions of the world, not excluding the major world religions - Christianity, Islam and Buddhism.

A systematic study of the features of animism is necessary for understanding not only the past, but also the modern world. A person at the beginning of the 21st century, in many areas of his life and culture, one way or another manifests, sometimes unconsciously, certain features of animistic ideas. Therefore, animism is much more than a relic of the cults of the past; it is an integral part of the inner world of man himself and the essence of his social existence.

1. Belief in spirits (according to ethnographic data)

1.1. The essence of animism

At the present time in modern religious studies, ethnography, cultural studies, sociology and philosophy, there are several views on the essence of animism.

The most common definition of animism (from Latin anima, animus soul, spirit) religious belief in souls and spirits. In modern sociocultural knowledge, this definition prevails mainly in ethnographic sciences.

In religious studies, the understanding of animism is somewhat broader. Animism is a holistic system of worldview ideas based on the recognition of the presence of an individual soul in various objects of the surrounding reality (plants, animals, tools, etc.). This is the doctrine of all kinds of other spiritual beings, or spirits, and at the same time one of the primitive forms of religion. Animism is characteristic of various cultures in the early stages of their development.

In philosophy, animism is understood as a philosophical doctrine that elevates the soul to the principle of life.

The word “animism” itself was first used by the German doctor of medicine, Professor G. E. Stahl at the beginning of the 18th century. I. Stahl believed that every living substance has a certain vital principle - soul (anima).

The rational soul is the basis of life, and illness, therefore, is the reaction of the soul against pathogenic causes, that is, the soul enters into a struggle with the causes that caused this or that disease. Therefore, medical intervention is essentially helping the soul in its struggle. Stahl's followers began to be called animists. For example, the great Russian scientist, surgeon, teacher N.I. Pirogov also shared his teaching about the soul as the basis of all life and in the early years of his work called himself an animist.

But as a scientific concept, animism was first introduced by the outstanding English ethnologist E. Tylor (late 19th and early 20th centuries). In his essay “Primitive Culture” (Taylor, “Primitive Culture”. Russian edition translated by Korobchevsky. St. Petersburg, 1872), which instantly became famous throughout Europe, the scientist used this term to define the very first form of development of religious ideas. Animism, according to E. Tylor, precedes totemism, mythology and polytheism. Animistic beliefs are the worship of the spirits of deceased ancestors, belief in one’s own living soul and the animation of the forces of nature. Since animism is the first form of religious ideas, it, in turn, is an integral part of every other religion, including all modern ones (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, etc.)

It is significant that Tylor, in his works, wrote the word animism with a capital letter, as in English it is customary to write the name of all the main religions of the world (Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, etc.). Thus, the scientist emphasized that animism is, first of all, a religion that is identical with modern religions.

Another English researcher, Andrew Lang, developed Tylor's teaching about the essence of animism, although he categorically objected to the model of the evolution of religions proposed by his predecessor.

Lang associated the origin of animism with the interpretation of dreams, visions and the state of trance by clairvoyants, which, in his opinion, led to the emergence of beliefs associated with souls and spirits. In addition, Lang associated the nature of animism with magic.

But at the same time, subsequent researchers subjected Lange’s theory of animism to fierce criticism. In particular, the English scientist Sir James Frazer, in his fundamental work “The Golden Bough” (1890), argued that the existence of magic in primitive society was impossible.

Later research showed that the gods that Lang spoke of were not a complete analogue of the Almighty in the great religions of the West, thereby casting a shadow on the validity of Tylor's theory.

Subsequently, at the beginning of the twentieth century. a number of philosophers, as well as mystics (in particular, the German author E. F. Hartmann) began to understand such primitive religious cults as spiritualism and others by animism.

But in general, animism is the idea of ​​the existence of spirits and the animation of objects, attributing to them intelligence, capacity, and sometimes supernatural power.

Indeed, animism is the first religious belief that arose from the very emergence of society, during the period of formation of tribal relations. Primitive people of the Stone Age in stateless societies deified and spiritualized not only the phenomena and forces of nature (sky and earth, sun and moon, rain and wind, thunder and lightning), on which their existence depended, but also individual details of the relief (mountains and rivers, hills and forests), where, as they believed, there were also spirits who needed to be appeased, attracted to their side, etc.

Historically, animism preceded the appearance of totemism, however, with the gradual evolution of the latter into mythology, it continued its development. Because of this, animist ideas had a broader social and practice-oriented character.

At the same time, the essence of animism is much broader than just a set of beliefs in spirits. Animism is a holistic worldview that has its own logic, system and rationalism. It is a certain rationalism inherent in animistic ideas that determines the fact that beliefs associated with spirits still exist today.

Indeed, to a certain extent, animism is a philosophy of life.

1.2. Animism among various peoples

As mentioned above, animistic religions are still widespread today. For example, many peoples of Southeast Asia believe in numerous spirits - bongs (spirits of the jungle, mountains, ponds, etc.), among which there are good and evil, dangerous and safe, useful and useless. Some perfumes are abstract in nature, such as spirits of war, peace, love and friendship. Numerous sacrifices are made to the bongs, rituals and ceremonies are performed to appease them. The peoples of the Andaman Islands, who revere many spirits (the spirits of the winds, sea currents, the month and the sun), especially highlight the spirit Pulugu, who personifies the destructive monsoon. He sends a storm at people if they do not observe certain prohibitions, especially those related to food.

Animism also dominated among the Eastern Slavs in the pre-Christian period. Animism is widespread among many modern peoples of the Caucasus. The clearest form of animism is the shamanism of the peoples of Siberia.

2. Siberian shamanism as a manifestation of polyconsciousness

2.1. The essence of shamanism as a holistic worldview.

Shamanism (shamanism) (from the Evenki shaman or saman excited, exalted, frenzied person), one of the early forms of religion, widespread in Africa, North and East Asia, among the Indians of South America, the peoples of Siberia and the Far East.

At the same time, shamanism is one of the forms of animism (See above).

Siberian shamanism is the general name for the animistic cults of the peoples of Siberia. Domestic historians, cultural studies and ethnographers identify several varieties of shamanism: Buryat, Yakut and Evenki as the most developed and systematized, as well as Tuvan and Altai as more archaic.

2.2. Features of Siberian shamanism

As one of the forms of animism, shamanism arises in the primitive communal era, and is directly related to hunting. Historically, Buryat shamanism is considered the first. Subsequently, during the period of the Mongol conquest of Siberia, shamanism spread among other Siberian peoples.

For many centuries, the shamanism of the peoples of Siberia was persecuted by adherents of Buddhism, Taoism, and later Orthodoxy, and therefore inevitably refracted through the prism of intercultural interaction. However, to one degree or another, shamanism as a cultural phenomenon has survived in our time.

The essence of shamanism, like any animistic concept, is the identification of the surrounding world with spirits, and, accordingly, its spiritualization. A characteristic feature of Siberian shamanism, and primarily Siberian shamanism, is, firstly, the belief in numerous spirits (spirits of plants, objects, animals), and secondly, the belief that spirits are capable of influencing human life (bringing good luck or bad luck, cause illness, or, on the contrary, health), and thirdly, what significantly distinguishes it from other cults of animism is the belief in the possibility of communication with the world of spirits through an intermediary - a shaman. A shaman is able not only to establish informational contact with spirits, but also to influence them. This is achieved through a certain ritual - kamlaniya (this is the scientific name), during which the shaman, being in a state of ecstasy, communicates with the spirits of nature.

Shamanism fully reflects the peculiarities of the polyconscious worldview of the peoples of Siberia. On the one hand, this is the presence of many spirits of a wide variety of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, on the other hand, a manifestation of the influence of a wide variety of cultures - Chinese, Mongolian, and later Russian.

An example of this is the shaman’s vestment, which is silver in front and gilded in the back, which is associated with the Mongolian custom of wearing gold and silver rings, personifying the feminine and masculine principles, the Moon and the Sun. (Therefore, adherents of shamanism consider the lark as a shaman among animals). This, in turn, is a reflection of the Taoist concept of the two principles of Yin and Yang.

Shamanism is dominated by the idea of ​​the so-called balance in the world of spirits, about which the British Mongolian scholar Peter Urgunge Onon (born 1919) writes: “Balance is the center of the surrounding world, and every person should be like it... Let it be weaker or stronger, but everyone should serve as your own lamp.” Ideas of balance appear to be borrowed from Buddhist philosophy.

The presence of nine diamonds among shamans indicates their highest rank of initiation. The description of the nine stages of shamanic initiation is a borrowing of Mongolian animistic ideas about the collection of nine tengri (war deities), correlated with the nine-bunchu military banner of Genghis Khan.

The worldview of shamanism is based on the idea that the Universe consists of three worlds: the Upper, where only spirits live, the Middle, where people, animals, and plants live along with spirits, and the Lower, where the souls of the dead go.

At the heart of shamanism is the figure of a shaman priest, who is an intermediary between people and spirits. When a shaman is elected, a “re-creation” occurs with him, that is, the spirits “take” his soul, and, having “reborn” it at their own discretion, “return” it to the shaman. This “re-creation” occurs in both visible and invisible ways. All kinds of cruel ritual acts are performed on the shaman, as a result of which his body is covered with bruises and abrasions. But the worst thing happens with internal sensations: according to the stories, they felt how the spirits “changed” their mind and heart, putting their thoughts and feelings into them.

According to legends widespread in Siberia, shamanism itself was founded by the great shaman Shargai-noyon-baaba-ei, who descended from the upper world and initiated the first shamans among the Buryat tribes. Therefore, it is believed that many spirits (the so-called zayaans) are the souls of great shamans of the past who continue their activities, helping living shamans.

Each shaman has assistant and patron spirits to whom he turns during rituals. Helper spirits appear in the form of mainly wild animals, fish and birds, and patron spirits are, as a rule, the spirits of the shaman’s deceased ancestors. Each shaman had their images as containers. It is significant that the dissemination of such images coincided with the active Orthodox missionary activity of Russians in Siberia, and therefore, in many ways, is a refracted borrowing of Orthodox icon veneration.

When a soul is lost, the shaman usually tries to bring it back through invocations, rather than going straight to search for it. Sometimes calling a soul is enough for its return if it has not yet left the middle world.

Most shamans use a tambourine during ritual, which, after a special rite of revival, is considered a riding animal - a horse or a deer. On it, the shaman makes a journey to the Upper World, driving the “animal” with a mallet, which is interpreted as a whip. Some shamans do not have a tambourine; it is replaced by a special rod, a harp (a specific musical instrument), or a bow. Shamans, as a rule, have a special ritual costume, including a specially made headdress, cloak and shoes.

During the ritual, which is usually performed for medicinal purposes in the presence of the patient and his relatives, the shaman, having entered a state of trance, convenes helping spirits and beats the tambourine, making a journey into the world of spirits on it - his "mount" in order to force evil spirits to leave the patient and thereby cure him.

Helper spirits and patron spirits help him in this. The shaman informs others about the vicissitudes of his journey and the fight against evil spirits, emotionally depicting fights with evil spirits, chanting spells, often very poetic.

Shamanism is usually hereditary. It is believed that after the death of a shaman, his spirit passes to his descendants, and the spirits themselves choose the people in whom they move - from the relatives of the deceased shaman.

The beginning of shamanic activity is associated with a mysterious mental illness that manifests itself during puberty of the future shaman. A person, unexpectedly for those around him, begins to hide from people, often running away into the taiga. During this time, he eats almost nothing and may even forget his name. Another shaman, invited by the patient’s relatives, establishes the cause of the illness, coming to the conclusion that his patient was possessed by the spirit of a deceased shaman ancestor. In such cases, the patient, without even wanting to, becomes a shaman. Relatives make him vestments and a tambourine.

Having received them, the shaman begins his ritual activities. The most amazing thing is that, having begun to perform rituals, in the process of treating his patients, the shaman’s mental health is also restored, all obvious manifestations of severe mental illness, so obvious in the recent past, disappear.

Back in the 19th century, scientists and travelers who observed shamans came to the unanimous conclusion that they were nervous people with a special mentality. This point of view subsequently became widespread among researchers of this form of religion. However, in recent decades, a number of scientists who have studied the phenomenon of shamanism argue that the so-called shamanic disease is only a kind of initiation in which the future shaman consciously performs the rituals prescribed to him, playing the role prescribed by tradition.

In this regard, I conducted special studies with the participation of psychiatrists, which confirmed the validity of the previous view of shamans as people with a special mentality. The results of my research have been published in scientific publications and have received support from a number of prominent experts.

Thus, the hereditary nature of shamanism is the result of a multi-generational process of selection by a tribal group of people with certain mental characteristics and, above all, the ability to induce a regulated trance state, accompanied by deep hallucinations. This is what led to the inheritance by shamans of some necessary mental characteristics that allow them to perform actions considered by their relatives as an opportunity to communicate with spirits in the interests of the collective and its individual members.

Although shamans sometimes use traditional medicine, they are not witch doctors or healers. The latter existed in clan groups along with shamans and independently of them.

As was noted at the level of folklore and not only shamanism has been preserved among many peoples not only of Siberia, but also of the world. But it is at different stages of development. For example, among modern Hungarians, only its remnants of shamanism have been identified, but among the aborigines of Australia, even its beginnings have been discovered.

Conclusion

A look at animism, belief in spirits, shamanism as something primitive - itself primitive in its essence. Animism and shamanism are a holistic worldview, an original culture, the basis of morality and spirituality of many peoples and civilizations of the past and present. In animistic ideas, the unique, specific foundations of the life activity of various peoples, their economic life and social structure were fully embodied.

But, being the basis of the worldview not only of individual peoples, but also of entire civilizations, animism goes far beyond the boundaries of ordinary religious practice. Animism and one of its brightest varieties, shamanism, served as the basis for the very existence of people in the harsh conditions of historical reality, and therefore predetermined the characteristics of national psychology and economic life.

Today, animism is of interest not only for desk consideration, but also for...