1. The emergence of philosophy

4. The first philosophical schools in Ancient times
Greece (Pre-Socratics)
(Plato, Aristotle)

1. The emergence of philosophy

The beginnings of philosophical ideas begin to appear in the depths of
mythological worldview in the III-II millennia before
AD
Already in the conditions of a tribal community, completely dependent on
nature, man began to influence the natural
process, acquiring experience and knowledge that influence
for his life
The surrounding world is gradually becoming a subject
human activity
The rise of philosophy was associated with
1. improving the ability to foresee,
2. the need to explain and reproduce the results
knowledge,
3. the development of the language, the emergence of abstract concepts,
4. with the first steps of science,
5. with mythology

1. The emergence of philosophy

"Theogony" - mythical tales about the emergence of gods
turn into
“cosmogony” - belief about the origin of the world
IN Ancient Egypt and Babylon, works appear, not
only breaking with mythology, but also containing
the beginnings of atheistic thought
"Dialogue between master and slave about the meaning of life"
"Harper's Song"
"Conversation of the Disappointed with His Spirit"
But neither in Ancient Egypt, nor in Assyria and Babylon
philosophical ideas never went beyond mythology,
did not form a coherent system of views
IN Ancient India first attempts to understand the world
belong to the 15th – 10th centuries. BC.
Primitive tribal beliefs and customs were
recorded in the oldest Indian monument
mythological literature - Vedas

2. Philosophical thought in Ancient India

Vedas - a collection of hymns in honor of the gods and what they established
world order
The Vedas consisted of four parts:
Rigveda (hymns)
Yajurveda (sacrificial formulas),
Samaveda (chants)
Atharveda (spells)
Guardians and interpreters of this sacred knowledge
were brahmins - representatives of the highest caste
Commentaries on the Vedas were compiled:
"Upanishads" (literally - "to sit at the feet of the teacher") and
"Aranyakas" ("forest books" compiled by
hermits)
The central myth of the Rig Veda has a cosmogonic
content
It talks about the beginning of the existence of our world
Cosmos gives birth to man
The spiritual side of man acquires cosmic meaning

2. Philosophical thought in Ancient India

There is a cycle of existence and a purpose in human life,
thus, is to fit into it
Starting from the 7th-6th centuries. BC, becoming widespread in India
anti-Brahmanical religious teachings:
Hinduism,
Jainism,
Buddhism
Karma (“action”) is the central concept of anti-Brahmanical
religions is the sum of all things accomplished by man
actions that influence his subsequent
existence and rebirth
The individual destiny of a person is determined by law
dharma (human purpose)
The law of dharma strictly determines the path of life
person,
the law of karma seems to weaken this predetermination, for
it gives a person the opportunity to influence his own
life

2. Philosophical thought in Ancient India

Samsara (literally “circle”) is a concept that denies
death as such:
living matter is indestructible, it only changes forms
of its existence
All living things do not die, but are reborn
To become a god, you must go through the practice of yoga
– systems of exercises that allow the soul to merge with
a deity in mystical ecstasy
The yogi is free from selfishness, from sensual attachments,
patient, sincere, persistent, indifferent to the world
There are hatha yoga - a system of physical exercises - and
Raja Yoga - a system of mental exercises
Buddhism is a religious and philosophical teaching that has become
subsequently the first of the world's religions, arose in the 6th century
BC.
The founder of Buddhism was Prince Siddhartha Gautama,
born in 563 BC and nicknamed
Buddha, i.e. "enlightened"

2. Philosophical thought in Ancient India

In Brahminism, suffering was the punishment for sins.
The main question in Buddhist teaching is "liberation"
human, the way to get rid of suffering
The basis of Buddhism is the doctrine of the four truths,
revealed to the Buddha:
1. All life is suffering and satanic deception.
2. The cause of suffering is the thirst for life and pleasure, and this
thirst leads a person to an endless chain of new
births.
3. Getting rid of suffering - renunciation of desires.
4. There are eight ways to achieve Nirvana -
states of equanimity and indifference.
Signs of suffering - anxiety, hope, desires,
fear
Suffering is the eternal desire for satisfaction
Death does not free a person from suffering, because... after
death awaits him a new birth and new suffering

2. Philosophical thought in Ancient India

The chain of endless rebirths only makes it worse
suffering and deprives it of meaning
Liberation from suffering is nirvana, a certain
mental state that allows
a) penetrate into the essence of things and discover them
immateriality,
b) stop experiencing any emotional
states,
c) stop all communication with the outside world, free yourself
from the "fetters of reality", which is nothing more than
Satan's deception
Thus, ancient Indian teachings also did not become
philosophical in the full sense of the word, but remained
a combination of mythological, religious and individual
philosophical ideas

2. Philosophical thought in Ancient India

Vaisheshika is the first school of Indian philosophy in the 3rd century. before
AD
This school contains the doctrine of atoms
The founder of Vaisesika Kanada believed that
there are the finest particles of the four elements:
earth, water, light (fire) and air
They were called paramanavas
These are some minima of substance (matter)
They are in motion because of an external push;
in addition, they have the property to combine in
stable and unstable combinations
Stable compounds are compounds of atoms of the same element,
land for example; to unstable - different elements,
for example, land and water
In accordance with belonging to a particular element
qualities are attributed to atoms:
to the atoms of the earth - smell, taste, color, touch; water atoms taste, color, touch; to fire atoms - color, touch; atoms
air - touch

2. Philosophical thought in Ancient India

Paramanavas (atom), being causeless, in itself
acts as the cause of the world
He
eternal;
is a unit of measure;
not penetrable, but it is enveloped in ether, which
permeates all macro objects
Ether acts as a kind of analogue of space
For each sense organ there are about ten
paramanavas (atoms)
Paramanavas (atoms) are not perceived by the senses, but
only by the supersensible consciousness of yogis
This theory speaks of the transition of Indian philosophy from
traditional ritual-mystical thinking to
logical thinking

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

Golden Age of Chinese Philosophy - Period from 6
by 4th c. BC.
At this time, 6 philosophical
schools:
1. Confucianism,
2. moism,
3. legalism,
4. Taoism,
5. yin-yang school,
6. school of names
Confucianism took the leading position
and Taoism
Confucianism (in Chinese, ru jia xue shuo) –
"school of intellectual scientists" arose in
6th – 5th centuries BC e.
Confucius (552 – 479 BC), or Kung Fu
Tzu, put forward the concept of ideal
states, which, in his opinion, and
scientists should have ruled
3. Philosophical
ideas in ancient
China

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

Society should not be governed on the basis
administrative-legal or economic
principles, but only on the basis of moral standards
The basis of Confucianism is the ethical teaching of
the innate nature of man and the acquired
qualities
Man is first and foremost a member of society, which is like
big family
The inner impulse of human existence -
humanity, external - decency
It brings out the best qualities in a person:
justice,
reciprocity,
reasonableness,
courage, respect, brotherly love, loyalty,
mercy, etc.
Confucius formulated the golden rule of ethics: “Thou shalt not
to a person what you don’t want for yourself.”

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

Confucius formulated the "Five Constants of Righteousness"
person":
Ren - “philanthropy”,
"mercy", "humanity"
This is the human principle in man, which is
at the same time his duty
Man is what he makes of himself
Li - literally "custom", "rite", "ritual"
fidelity to customs, observance of rituals, for example, reverence
to parents
Li - any activity aimed at preserving
foundations of society
And - "truth", "justice"
And based on reciprocity: so, it is fair to honor
parents in gratitude for the fact that they raised you
And imparts to the noble man the necessary firmness and
severity

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

Zhi - common sense, prudence, “wisdom”,
prudence - the ability to calculate the consequences of one’s
actions, look at them from the outside, in perspective
Zhi confronts stupidity
Xin - sincerity, “good intention”,
ease and conscientiousness
Xin balances Li by warning against hypocrisy
All of them are included in the content of the “Wen” category -
cultural meaning of human existence, education

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

Taoism (in Chinese Tao Jiao) - direction
in Chinese philosophy, founded by Lao Tzu
Formed in the 6th – 4th centuries BC.
Lao Tzu outlined his ideas in the book “Taode Ching”, “The Book of the Path (Tao) and the Good
ile (De)"
Tao is the law of all things, giving birth and
absorbing principle of the Universe, principle
existence of space, society and man
Tao combines the driving forces
world process: Yin and Yang
Yin – feminine, dark, passive, internal
Start
Yang – masculine, light, active, external
Start
They do not exist separately from each other
3. Philosophical
ideas in ancient
China

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

The meaning of cosmic existence is in their interpenetration and
interaction
Following the law of Tao ensures harmony and prosperity
and longevity
Departure from Tao is the cause of all the evil that reigns in the world,
disharmony, disasters, death
Tao is a holistic being
Not a single thing in the world exists separately and does not have
intrinsic value
Thinking about individual objects and phenomena is
a delusion generated by language, where every thing
matches a single name
There is no opposition between life and death: they
are conceived as an indivisible whole, as transformations
being
The human spirit perishes along with the body, dissolving into the world

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

Moism, the “school of Mo” (mo jia) is a philosophical and religious teaching that was formed in 5–4
centuries BC. and widely
distribution in the 4th–3rd centuries. BC.
Treatise "Mo Tzu"
Mo-tzu (Mo-di) (490-468 - 403-376 BC)
was originally a supporter
Confucianism, and then spoke with his
sharp criticism
The main thing in moism is ascetic love of people,
implying unconditional priority
collective over individual and
the fight against private egoism in the name of
public altruism
3. Philosophical
ideas in ancient
China

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

The interests of the people are reduced to the satisfaction of elementary
material needs that determine his behavior
“In a good year people are humane and kind, in a lean year they are
inhumane and evil"
Traditional forms of ethical-ritual decency
and music are seen as manifestations
wastefulness
Mohism is based on two principles:
comprehensive, mutual and equal “unifying love”
(jian ai)
“mutual benefit/benefit” (xiang li)
The highest guarantor and precise criterion of the validity of this
Mohists believed that Heaven (tian), which brings
happiness to those who feel a unifying feeling towards people
love and benefits them
Heaven has will, thoughts, desires and equally
loves all living things

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

The Mohists argued that there is no fatality in the destinies of people
predestination (min), so a person must be
active and active, and the ruler is attentive to
virtues and talents that should be respected and
promote regardless of social affiliation
The result of the correct interaction between the upper and lower
the principle of equal opportunity should be based
universal “unity” (tun), i.e. overcome animal
chaos and primitive unrest of general mutual enmity
centrally controlled, structural entity
The Mohists called for an anti-militarist and
peacekeeping activities, while developing
theory of fortification and defense

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

Legalism - "School of Law" - formed in the 4th-3rd centuries. before
AD theoretical substantiation of despotic control
state and society, which is the first in Chinese
theory has achieved the status of a single official ideology in
Qin Empire (221–207 BC)
Guan Zhong (? – 645 BC) the first in Chinese history
put forward the concept of governing the country based on
"law" (fa)
The law must rise above the ruler and must
limit, protect the people from its unbridledness
To counteract vicious trends,
suggested using punishment as the main method
management: “when they are afraid of punishment, it is easy to manage”
Zi Chan (c. 580 – c. 522 BC) first in China in 536 BC
AD codified criminal laws by creating a “law on
punishments" (xing shu)

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

Deng Xi (c. 545 - c. 501 BC) developed this initiative,
by publishing the “Bamboo Code of Punishment” (zhu
syn)
State power - sole exercise
ruler through the "laws" (fa) of the right
correspondence between “names” and “realities”
The ruler must master a special “technique” of management,
which presupposes the ability to “see with the eyes
Celestial Empire", "listen with the ears of the Celestial Empire",
"reason with the mind of the Celestial Empire"
He cannot be “generous” towards people:
The sky allows natural disasters, the ruler does not get by
without applying penalties
In the period from the 4th to the first half of the 3rd century. BC. happened
formation of legalism into a holistic independent
doctrine that has become the sharpest opposition
Confucianism
Shen Dao (c. 395 – c. 315 BC) began to preach
"respect for law" and "respect for authority"

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

"It's not enough to be worthy to
to subjugate the people, but it is enough to possess
powerful force to subdue
worthy"
Shen Buhai (c. 385 – c. 337 BC) called for
"to elevate the sovereign and to humiliate
officials" in such a way that they
all executive duties fell on
and he, demonstrating “inaction” to the Celestial Empire,
secretly exercised control and power
powers
Shang Yang (390–338 BC) concluded
that the state must win and
stupidize the people, and not bring them
benefit:
“When people are stupid, they are easy to control. And that's all
this is thanks to the law"
The laws themselves are by no means inspired by God and
subject to change
3. Philosophical
ideas in ancient
China

3. Philosophical ideas in Ancient China

“A wise man makes laws, and a fool obeys them,
the worthy changes the rules of decency, and
the worthless is curbed by them"
“When the people are stronger than their authorities, the state is weak;
when the authorities are stronger than their people, the army is powerful
When wrongdoings are hidden, the people have defeated the law; When
crimes are strictly punished - the law has defeated the people
When the people defeat the law, turmoil reigns in the country;
when the law defeats the people, the army strengthens"
Therefore, the government should be stronger than its people and
take care of the power of the army
People must be encouraged to engage in two-pronged
the most important thing - agriculture and war, saving him
thus from innumerable desires
Managing people should be based on understanding them.
vicious, selfish nature

4. The first philosophical schools

The true flowering of philosophy occurred in ancient
Greece and Ancient Rome
Core idea ancient Greek philosophy was
cosmocentrism:
fear and admiration for the Cosmos,
showing interest in the issues
the origin of the material world;
explanation of the phenomena of the world
The person did not stand out from the surrounding world, was part of
nature
Nature and the basic natural elements are the macrocosm
Man is a kind of repetition of the surrounding world –
microcosm
The highest principle, subordinating all human
manifestations - fate
The existence of gods who were part of
nature and close to people
The philosophical concepts of antiquity were based on
everyday experience

4. The first philosophical schools

Philosophy Ancient Greece
I. Pre-Socratics
Milesian School (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes)
Pythagorean League (Pythagoras and his disciples)
Eleatic School (Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno)
Heraclitus of Ephesus
Anaxagoras of Clazomenes
Empedocles of Acraganthus
Atomists (Leucippus, Democritus)
Sophists (Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon)
II. Classical period
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
III. Hellenistic philosophy
Cynics (Antisthenes, Diogenes)
Skeptics (Pyrrho)
Epicureans (Epicurus, Lucretius Carus)
Stoics (Zeno of Citium, Xenophanes, Chrysippus, Plutarch, Cicero,
Seneca, Marcus Aurelius)
schools of Neoplatonism (Roman, Syrian, Pergamon, Athenian, etc.)

4. The first philosophical schools

Milesian school
Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes
looking for the root cause of everything
Thales (625 - 545 BC) is considered
founder of European philosophy
The ocean is a ring river surrounding the world,
and the Earth itself floats in this river
He distinguished between soul and body, but considered the soul itself
material
Everything has a soul
For example, a magnet can attract
thanks to having a soul
The soul considered the properties of objects, and these
properties are more important than external form
Ethical teaching: man is not beautiful
in appearance, but in deeds

4. The first philosophical schools

He called the fundamental question for philosophy “What is everything?”
Anaximander (611 - 545 BC) tried to justify that
is infinity
The root cause of existence was considered apeiron - the indefinite
formless, timeless matter from which
everything arises: earth, air, water, fire
The world was not created, but arose on its own from apeiron
And already from the earthly elements (earth, air, water, fire)
living beings and natural phenomena arise
Life arose as a result of the evaporation of moisture from silt
Man, like all animals, descended from fish
The world is not eternal, but as a result of its destruction there will be
a new world, and this will continue indefinitely
The world is not the way we perceive it, because...
our feelings are imperfect
Therefore, before knowing the world, it is necessary to know
the nature of our feelings

4. The first philosophical schools

Invented the sundial and created the first geographical
map of Europe and Asia
Anaximenes (560 - 480 BC) - considered the fundamental principle
existing air, and explained all states of matter
degree of condensation of air: condensing, the air becomes
first water, then stone, and becoming rarefied, it becomes
fire
Air is infinite, the soul is made of it

4. The first philosophical schools

Pythagorean Union
Pythagoras (580 – 497 BC) from the island of Samos
became the creator of the “Pythagorean Union”
Pythagoras invented the term "philosophy"
founder of mathematics as a science
I came to the conclusion that “everything is a number”, because
all things can be measured, any phenomenon
has a numerical expression
Number is the basis of thinking and cognition
Exploring the nature of music, the Pythagoreans
discovered that notes and chords
are in numbers, therefore harmony
the world depends on numbers
The process of understanding the world is a process
number cognition
The basis of a series of numbers is one
The soul is the harmony of bodily elements,
countable in number
4. First
philosophical
schools

1. The first philosophical schools

Philosophical school of the Eleatics
xenophanes,
parmenides,
Zeno
Xenophanes (580 – 490 BC), poem “O
nature"
The basis of the world is the earth, for everything comes from it
is born and everything goes into it
One of the first to suggest that life
was born in water
Reflecting on the gods, he expressed the idea that “God
such is the way man is,” i.e. their
anthropomorphism is a figment of fantasy
In fact, God is the whole world, eternal and
endless space
Everything we see is the embodiment of properties
God
1. First
philosophical
schools

4. The first philosophical schools

Parmenides (540 - 480 BC) argued for immutability and
stillness of the world
Parmenides introduced the concept of “being” into philosophy
Being is eternal, whole and motionless
Being is something that can be grasped by thought
Thinking and being are the same thing
Being exists because it is conceivable, but non-existence is not
exists because you can't think or talk about him
Zeno (490 - 430 BC) is an inventor
dialectics
Believed that only what can be logically exists
prove
He became famous for his famous aporia "Arrow",
"Achilles and the Tortoise", "Dichotomy"
Aporia is an intractable problem in which the data
experience differs from the data of logical analysis

4. The first philosophical schools

Heraclitus of Ephesus (544-483 BC)
"About nature"
Fire is the most dynamic, changeable of
of all elements, fire is the beginning of the world, in
while water is only one of its
states
The very Earth on which we live was
once a red-hot part of the universal
fire, but then cooled down
Founder of the first doctrine of dialectics
Author of the famous phrase: “Everything flows and moves,
and nothing endures"
The source of universal variability is
the internal duality of things and
processes on opposite sides, their
interaction
Everything in life comes from opposites
and is known through them:
“Illness makes health pleasant and good,
hunger - satiety, fatigue - rest"
4. First
philosophical
schools

4. The first philosophical schools

Anaxagoras of Clazomene (500 - 428 BC)
was the first to expound philosophy in
publicly available form
The world consists of eternal elements, “seeds”
(“homeomerium”), which include
yourself in the fullness of world qualities and
controlled by the cosmic Mind
Homeomerism, devoid of itself
movements were originally
brought out of the calm, chaotic
states to others, also eternal,
materially conceivable beginning, mind (nus), and this movement,
separation of heterogeneous and connection
homogeneous, the world was created
4. First
philosophical
schools

4. The first philosophical schools

"World mind" ("nous") - the thinnest and lightest substance -
sets everything in motion and arranges: heterogeneous
elements are separated from each other, and homogeneous
unite - this is how things come into being
The mind is enclosed in the matter in which it creates; however not
mixing with it, is something "incompatible"
Not a single thing arises, nor does it disappear, but is formed
from the combination of already existing things, as a result
separating these things from each other, it turns into
nothing, disintegrates
Only the unequal and contradictory can be known.

4. The first philosophical schools

Empedocles of Acragas (490-430 BC)
There is unity and plurality in the world, but
not simultaneously, but sequentially
Nature is a cyclical process
which love first reigns,
connecting all elements - "the roots of all
things," and then enmity reigns,
separating these elements
When love reigns, then the world
unity reigns, quality
the originality of individual elements disappears
When enmity reigns, there appears
originality of material elements,
many appear
The reign of love and the reign of enmity
separated by transitional periods
4. First
philosophical
schools

4. The first philosophical schools

The world process consists of these repeating cycles.
In the process of all the changes that take place, the elements themselves do not
arise and are not destroyed, they are eternal
Light requires certain time for your
propagation, that is, the speed of light is very
large, but still finite in magnitude
Living things came from non-living things
The fittest organisms survived, and in this
some expedient plan was traced
It is impossible to master healing if you don’t know, don’t
explore a person
The process of sensory perception depends on the structure
bodily organs
Cognition is carried out as follows: similar
is comprehended like this

4. The first philosophical schools

For example, the senses adapt to
sensed, if the structure of the sense organ is such that
cannot adapt to what is perceived, then this
the object is not perceived
Cosmic Love is known like human Love
love
The sense organs have peculiar pores through which
“outflows” from the perceived object penetrate
If the pores are narrow, then the “outflows” cannot penetrate, and
no perception occurs

4. The first philosophical schools

Atomists
Leucippus of Abdera (5th century BC) put forward
idea of ​​plurality of elements
existing
To explain the variety of objects
asserts existence
relative non-existence, that is
the presence of emptiness separating everything
existence into many elements
The properties of these elements depend on
limiting them empty
spaces, they differ in
size, figure, movement, but everything
elements are thought of as homogeneous,
continuous and therefore indivisible
(atomoi) - atoms
Believed movement to be intrinsic
atoms
4. First
philosophical
schools

4. The first philosophical schools

Democritus of Abdera (c. 460-c. 370)
BC) - student of Leucippus, one of
founders of atomism
Developed the doctrine of Leucippus about the “atom” -
indivisible particle of matter
possessing true existence, not
collapsing and not emerging
Described the world as a system of atoms in
emptiness, rejecting the infinite
divisibility of matter, asserting not
only an infinite number of atoms
in the Universe, but also their infinity
forms
Atoms move in empty space
(Great Emptiness) chaotic,
collide and as a result
matching shapes, sizes,
regulations and procedures or
stick together or fly apart
4. First
philosophical schools

4. The first philosophical schools

The resulting compounds are held together and thus
how complex bodies arise
Movement itself is a property naturally inherent in atoms.
Bodies are combinations of atoms
The diversity of bodies is due to both the difference in the components that compose them
atoms, and the difference in the order of assembly, both from the same and
the same letters make up different words
Atoms cannot touch because anything that does not have
emptiness within itself, is indivisible, that is, one
atom
Therefore, between two atoms there is always at least
small gaps of emptiness, so that even in ordinary
bodies have emptiness
It also follows that when atoms are brought very close together
small distances between them begin to take effect
repulsive forces
At the same time, mutual interactions between atoms are also possible.
attraction based on the principle of “like attracts”
similar"

4. The first philosophical schools

The various qualities of bodies are completely determined
properties of atoms and their combinations and interactions
atoms with our senses
All sensible qualities arise from the combination of atoms
existing only for us, who perceive them, by nature
nothing is white, black, yellow, or
red, neither bitter nor sweet
The main methodological principle of the atomists was
the principle of isonomy (from Greek: equality of all before the law):
if this or that phenomenon is possible and does not contradict
laws of nature, then it is necessary to assume that in
infinite time and infinite space
it either happened once or someday
will come: in infinity there is no boundary between
opportunity and existence
This principle is also called the principle of absence.
Sufficient Reason: There is no reason why
so that some body or phenomenon exists rather in
more than in any other form

4. The first philosophical schools

If a phenomenon can in principle occur in
different species, then all these species exist in
reality
He made several important conclusions from the isonomy principle:
1) there are atoms of all shapes and sizes (including
the size of the whole world);
2) all directions and all points in the Great Emptiness
equal;
3) atoms move in the Great Void in any
directions at any speed
The movement itself does not need explanation, the reason
need to search only for movement changes
The Great Void is spatially infinite
In the initial chaos of atomic movements in the Great
A vortex spontaneously forms in the void
The symmetry of the Great Void is broken
inside the vortex, a center and periphery arise there

4. The first philosophical schools

The worlds are infinite in number and differ from each other in
size
In some of them there is neither sun nor moon, in others there is sun and
the moon is larger than ours, thirdly - there are not one of them, but
some
The distances between the worlds are not the same; Besides, in
in one place there are more worlds, in another there are fewer
Some worlds are expanding, others have reached full
flourishing, others are already declining
In one place worlds arise, in another they decline
They are destroyed when they collide with each other
Some of the worlds are devoid of animals, plants and what
no matter the moisture
All worlds move in different directions because
all directions and all states of motion are equal
In this case, worlds can collide, collapsing

4. The first philosophical schools

Interested in problems of man and society
The measure is the correspondence of a person’s behavior to his
natural abilities and abilities
Pleasure is an objective good, not just
subjective sensory perception
He considered the basic principle of human existence
being in a state of bliss, serenity
disposition of spirit, devoid of passions and extremes
This is not just a simple sensual pleasure, but a state
"peace, serenity and harmony"
All evil and misfortune happen to a person due to the lack of
necessary knowledge
Denied the role of gods and everything supernatural in
the emergence of the world
“We came to the idea of ​​gods from what was happening in the world
extraordinary phenomena"
Ancient people, observing celestial phenomena, such as
thunder and lightning, eclipses of the sun and moon, were struck
horror, believing that the gods are the culprits of these phenomena

4. The first philosophical schools

Didn't deny the existence of gods
Gods, like all other things, consist of atoms and therefore do not
immortal, but these are very stable compounds
atoms inaccessible to our senses
However, if desired, the gods make themselves known in images,
which are most often perceived by us in dreams
These images can bring us harm or benefit, sometimes
they talk to us and predict the future

4. The first philosophical schools

Sophists:
Protagoras of Abdera (490-420 BC)
Gorgias of Leontini (483-380 BC)
Antiphon from Athens (5th century BC)
Protagoras believed that the world is the way it is
represented in human feelings (sensualism)
"Man is the measure of all things that exist,
that they exist and non-existent, that
they don't exist"
There is only what a person perceives as his own
sense organs, and there is nothing that a person does not
perceives with feelings
"What we feel is how it really is"
“Everything is as it seems to us”
Protagoras points out the relativity of our
knowledge, the element of subjectivity in it
Judgments different people may be the same
are fair, although one of them is for some reason
reasons is more true
4. First
philosophical
schools

4. The first philosophical schools

For example, the judgment of a healthy person is more correct than
patient's judgment
“About every thing there are two contradictory
judgments", and no rebuttals are possible at all
"Illness is evil for the patient, but good for the doctor"
"About the gods it is impossible to say neither that they exist, nor that
they don't exist; for on the way to gaining such knowledge
There are too many obstacles, the main ones of which are the impossibility of knowing this subject through
reason and brevity of human life"
He also dealt with the problems of correct speech, used
great prestige among posterity
Gorgias was one of the first orators of a new type - not
only a practitioner, but also a theorist of eloquence, for a fee
who taught young men from wealthy families to speak and
think logically
He developed and applied special rhetorical devices
“Serious arguments of the enemy refute with a joke, jokes
- seriousness"

4. The first philosophical schools

True knowledge does not exist, because even what we personally
experienced, we remember and learn with difficulty; us
one should be content with a plausible opinion
Antiphon
One of the first to proclaim the equality of people
A citizen of any city is the same as a citizen
another, a representative of one class is equal
representative of another, for by nature one person
equal to another person
Everyone is equal, because everyone has the same natural
needs, everyone breathes

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

II. Classical period
Socrates (469 – 399 BC)
Special role in Greek history
philosophy belongs to Socrates (469 –
399 BC.)
He called his method of philosophizing
"maieutics", which literally means
“the art of giving birth”: philosopher
obliged to contribute to the birth of truth
The task of a philosopher is not to teach others, but
asking questions to encourage knowledge
and search for truth
He was the first to establish that our thinking
is conceptual in nature, and the path to
truth lies through dialogue
“Truth is born in dispute”
Dialogue is a way to critically discuss
any point of view
5. Bloom
ancient Greek
philosophy

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Socrates - founder social philosophy and ethics
It is impossible to know the outside world, but you can know the soul
man, and this is the task of philosophy
Evil understood as ignorance of good
Explored moral virtues and was the first to try
give their general definitions
Focused on the uniqueness of consciousness
compared to material existence and one of the first
deeply revealed the sphere of the spiritual as an independent
reality, proclaiming it as something no less
more certain than the existence of the perceived world
Virtue comes from knowledge, and a person who knows that
such goodness, he will not do evil
After all, good is also knowledge, therefore the culture of intellect
can make people kind
A person's happiness depends on how virtuous he is

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

“Every person can easily say how many sheep he has, but not
anyone can tell how many friends he has -
they're so priceless
Whoever wants to move the world, let him move himself!
The highest wisdom is to distinguish between good and evil
People find it easier to keep a hot coal on their tongue than a secret.
A person does not achieve happiness not because he does not have it
wants, but because he doesn’t know what it is
Wonder is the beginning of all wisdom
There are so many things in the world that I don’t need!
Nature has endowed us with two ears, two eyes, but
only one language so that we can look and listen
more than they said
The less a person needs, the closer he is to the Gods
Happiness does not change morals: it emphasizes them
All I know is that I don’t know anything.”

Plato of Athens (427 – 347 BC)
Author of many works written in
form of dialogues
One of the founders of idealism in the world
philosophy
The Doctrine of Being
Only absolutes can be called being
entities that retain their existence
regardless of space and time
Such absolute entities are called
ideas (eidos)
There are three kinds of existence -
1. eternal ideas,
2. changing concrete things and
3. the space in which they exist
things
5. Bloom
ancient Greek
philosophy
(Plato,
Aristotle)

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy (Plato, Aristotle)

The highest object of knowledge is good
“Good” is ontological perfection, for example
the quality factor of a particular thing, its usefulness and high
quality
Good cannot be defined as pleasure, because
I have to admit that there are bad pleasures
Something that only benefits us cannot be called good.
because the same thing can harm another
Good is “good in itself”
The idea of ​​good is like the Sun
Doctrine of the Soul
Contrastes soul and body as two dissimilar
essence
The body is decomposable and mortal, but the soul is eternal
Unlike the body, which can be destroyed, the soul has nothing
may prevent you from existing forever
Vice does not lead the soul to death, but simply perverts it and
makes her unholy

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy (Plato, Aristotle)

Plato identifies three principles of the soul:
1. A smart start, focused on knowledge and entirely
conscious activity
2. The furious beginning, striving for order and overcoming
difficulties
3. Passionate beginning, expressed in countless
human lusts
Four arguments in favor of the theory of the immortality of the soul
1. Since opposites presuppose the presence
each other, death implies the presence of immortality
“If everything involved in life died, and having died,
would remain dead and not come to life again - wouldn't it?
it is quite clear that in the end everything would become
dead and life would disappear?
The souls of the dead must remain incorruptible
2. In human consciousness there are universal
concepts such as “beauty in itself” or
"justice in itself"

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy (Plato, Aristotle)

These concepts point to absolute entities,
existing forever
If the soul knows about them, then the human soul existed before
how a person himself is born into the world
The soul could not receive knowledge of the immortal and eternal
essences, if she herself were not immortal and eternal
3. There are two types of existence
The first includes everything visible and decomposable, the second -
inaccessible to the senses and indecomposable
The body is something that is visible and constantly changing
Consequently, the body is complex in nature, and there is no
nothing simple and indecomposable
That's why the body is mortal
But the soul is inaccessible to the senses and is drawn to the knowledge of things
eternal and unchanging
Since a mortal body, with the help of embalming, is capable
remain incorruptible for a long time, then the soul,
participating in the divine principle, all the more should it be
recognized as immortal

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

4. Opposites are mutually exclusive
So, if a number is even, then it cannot be odd, but
if something is true, then it cannot be
unfair
The soul is the true reason for the existence of the body
Corporality itself cannot be considered the cause
human existence
Therefore, the soul as the “idea of ​​life” cannot be involved
nothing that is opposite to life, that is, death
The soul initially dwells in the sphere of “pure being”, not
involved in anything temporary and changing, contemplating
pure forms, ideas (eidos)
Human souls sometimes even have the opportunity
look into the “transcelestial” field of super-essential existence
or “ideas of the Good,” but this comes with great difficulty and
not all of them are capable of this
Because of their imperfections, people's souls often fall from
spheres of pure forms and are forced to spend time on
Earth, having inhabited one body or another

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Theory of knowledge
Everything accessible to knowledge is divided into two types:
comprehended by sensation and
cognizable by the mind
The relationship between the realms of the sensible and the intelligible
determines the relationship between different cognitive
abilities: sensations allow us to understand (albeit
unreliable) the world of things, the mind allows you to see the truth
What is felt is again divided into two types - the objects themselves and
their shadows and images
Faith corresponds to the first kind, and faith to the second.
assimilation
By faith we mean the ability to have
direct experience
Taken together, these abilities constitute an opinion
Opinion is not knowledge in the true sense of the word,
since it concerns changeable objects, as well as their
images

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

The sphere of the intelligible is also divided into two kinds - this
ideas of things and their intelligible similarities
Ideas for their knowledge do not need any
premises, representing eternal and unchanging
entities accessible only to the mind
The second type includes mathematical objects
Mathematicians only “dream” existence, since they
use inferential concepts that need a system
axioms accepted without proof
The ability to produce such concepts is reason
Reason and understanding together constitute thinking, and only it
capable of cognition of essence
As essence relates to becoming, so does thinking
refers to opinion; and knowledge is related to faith in the same way
and reasoning towards assimilation
The sensory world in which people live represents
a cave

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Like the prisoners of the cave, they believe that thanks to
senses perceive true reality
However, such a life is just an illusion
From the true world of ideas only vague shadows reach them
A philosopher can gain a more complete understanding of the world
ideas, constantly asking yourself questions and looking for answers to them
However, there is no point in trying to divide what is received
knowledge with the crowd that is unable to tear itself away from
illusions of everyday perception
Knowledge requires a certain amount of work - constant effort,
aimed at studying and understanding certain
items
The main method of cognition is dialectics - knowledge of ourselves
essences of things
Only one who, bypassing sensations, engages in dialectics
through reason alone, rushes towards
essence of any object and does not retreat until
with the help of thinking itself will not comprehend the essence of good

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

So he finds himself at the very top of the intelligible,
just as another has ascended to the pinnacle of the visible.”
Any thing is only a reflection of its idea, maybe
strives for it, but will never achieve it
A philosopher should study ideas, not things themselves
Ethics
Plato demands purification of the soul, purification from worldly
pleasures, from being filled with sensual joys
social life
Human task
is to rise above disorder (imperfect
sensory world) and with all the strength of the soul strive for
like a god who is not in contact with anything
angry;
is to free the soul from everything corporeal,
concentrate it on yourself, on the inner world of speculation and
deal only with the true and eternal;

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

In all of Plato's works it is implied
the existence of eros, the desire for an ideal in the highest
beauty and eternal fullness of being
He saw the essence of man in his eternal and immortal
soul entering the body at birth
She (and therefore the person) is receptive to knowledge
In this Plato saw a generic (general) difference from an animal
And at the species (particular) level, a person differs from
animal by its external features
Formulated one of the first definitions of essence
person:
“Man is a wingless creature, bipedal, with flat
nails, receptive to knowledge based on
reasoning"
The body pulls a person into the animal world, and the soul - into
divine

Doctrine of the State
Plato describes the cycle of state forms, but all
they are imperfect, if only because they exist in
world of things, the ideal form of the polis opposes them
The division of labor leads to exchange between people, and exchange
convenient if you live together
The division of labor creates the need for different
virtues in each profession
Initially these are the virtues of the farmer, builder and weaver
Then, with the growth of the state-police, conflicts arise with
other states, a professional
community of warriors
Philosophical rulers create the best laws for
preventing the circulation of state forms
Plato's political ideal is stability
states
For it to be stable, it requires stability in
society, everyone does their own work - this is
fair

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Inequality of classes is also normal, because happiness
an individual person does not mean anything for the happiness of the policy
Plato identifies three forms of government, each of which
depending on the presence or absence of legality
is divided into two
The power of one: legal - monarchy, illegal - tyranny
The power of the few: legal - aristocracy, illegal -
oligarchy
The power of the majority: legal - democracy, illegal -
ochlocracy
He considers democracy to be the worst form
Justice is in charge of the state
Every state ceases to be a state if the courts
it is not arranged properly

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Later Plato in his Laws would describe a different utopia and a different
political system - aristocratic republic
or aristocratic monarchy:
4 classes, depending on property qualifications,
5040 citizens and a very complex management system,
personal property allowed, money allowed
creating a family for all classes,
significant strengthening of the controlling role
state that strictly regulates everything
public relations

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Aristotle from the city of Stagira (384 - 322 BC)
AD) became the first encyclopedist scientist
First Aristotle is the best student
Platonov Academy, then her
teacher
Been a mentor of the future for over 10 years
Alexander the Great
IN last years- founder and leader
Athens Lyceum
Being a student of Plato, he did not become his
follower
Criticized the fundamentals
Platonic philosophy, saying
famous phrase:
"Plato is my friend but the truth is dearer"
Was the first thinker to create
comprehensive system of philosophy
5. Bloom
ancient Greek
philosophy

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Theory of knowledge
He considered logic to be the main method of scientific knowledge.
based on reasoning and evidence
Claimed that knowledge is not innate
In the process of cognition, he identified four stages:
feeling,
memory,
experience,
scientific knowledge
Created a conceptual apparatus that is still
permeates the philosophical vocabulary and the very style of scientific
thinking
Aristotle created the work “Logic”, which retains its
enduring significance to this day
He developed a theory of thinking and its forms, concepts,
judgments and inferences

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

The task of the concept is to ascend from the simple
sensory perception to the heights of abstraction
Scientific knowledge is the most reliable knowledge, logically
provable and necessary
Aristotle distinguished between "dialectical" and "apodictic"
knowledge
The area of ​​dialectical knowledge is the “opinion” obtained
from experience, apodictic - reliable knowledge
Although opinion can receive a very high degree
probability in its content, experience is not
the last authority for the reliability of knowledge, because the highest
the principles of knowledge are contemplated by the mind directly
The starting point of knowledge is sensations,
resulting from exposure outside world on
sense organs, without sensations there is no knowledge

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

The sensations themselves determine only the first and
the lowest level of knowledge, and to the highest level
a person rises through generalization in thinking
social practice
Aristotle saw the goal of science in a complete definition
subject, achieved only by combining deduction
and induction:
1) knowledge about each individual property must be
acquired from experience;
2) the belief that this property is essential must
be proven by an inference of a special logical form
- categorical syllogism
The basic principle of a syllogism expresses the connection between gender,
view and single thing
These three terms are a reflection of the connection between the consequence,
cause and cause bearer

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

System scientific knowledge cannot be reduced to a single
system of concepts, because there is no such concept
which could be a predicate of all other concepts:
therefore it is necessary to indicate all higher genera, namely
categories to which the other kinds of existence are reduced
Thinking about categories and using them in analysis
philosophical problems, Aristotle considered and
operations of the mind and its logic, including logic
statements
Aristotle also developed the problems of dialogue, which deepened
Socrates' ideas

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Aristotle formulated logical laws:
law of identity - a concept must be used in one and the same
the same meaning in the course of reasoning;
law of contradiction - “don’t contradict yourself”
law of the excluded middle - “A or not-A is true,
There is no third"
Aristotle developed the doctrine of syllogisms, in which
all kinds of inferences are considered in
reasoning process
The doctrine of being (ontology)
Being is a living substance characterized by four
principles (conditions) of being:
1. Matter - “that from which”
The variety of things that exist objectively
Matter is eternal, uncreated and indestructible

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

It cannot arise from nothing, increase or
decrease in number
She is inert and passive
Formless matter represents nothingness
Primary formed matter is expressed in the form of five
primary elements (elements):
air, water, earth, fire,
ether (celestial substance)
2. Form - “what”
Essence, stimulus, purpose, as well as the reason for the formation
diverse things from monotonous matter
God (or
the mind is the prime mover)
Aristotle approaches the idea of ​​the singular existence of a thing,
phenomenon: it is a fusion of matter and
forms

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

3. Effective cause (beginning) - “that from where”
God is the beginning of all beginnings
There is a causal dependence of the phenomenon of existence: there is
the efficient cause is the energy force,
generating something at rest of the universal
interaction of the phenomena of existence, not only matter and
form, act and potency, but also the generating energy of the cause, which, along with the active principle and
target meaning
4. Purpose - “what for”
The Supreme Goal is the Good
Being is the objective world, the actual principle of the thing,
inseparable from her, a motionless engine,
divine mind or immaterial form of all forms
Created a classification of the properties of being, comprehensively
defining the subject - 10 predicates
In first place is the category “entity” with highlighting
the first essence - “individual being”, and the second
essences - “being of species and genera”

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Other categories reveal properties and states of being:
quantity, quality, relation, place, time, possession,
situation, action, suffering
Categories were formed as a result of generalization
historical development of knowledge
The content and significance of each category are determined
moving objective being
Substance as the ultimate basis of all things is not
is such if it lacks at least one of these
components of being
Hierarchy of levels of all things
inorganic formations (inorganic world).
the world of plants and living beings.
world of different animal species
Human

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Place and structure of philosophy
Philosophy appears on the basis of “episteme” - knowledge,
beyond feelings, skills and experience
Empirical knowledge in the field of calculus, health
man, the natural properties of objects are not only the rudiments
sciences, but also the theoretical prerequisites for the emergence
philosophy
Philosophy is a system of scientific knowledge
Philosophical knowledge is divided into metaphysics, logic,
analytics, ethics, physics, history, aesthetics
Doctrine of God


single engine

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

the reason of all reasons
The absolute beginning of all movement is deity as
universal supersensible substance
The existence of a deity is proved by the improvement of the Cosmos
The deity serves as the subject of the highest and most
perfect knowledge, since all knowledge is aimed at
form and essence, and God is pure form and the first
essence
Doctrine of the Soul
The soul, which has integrity, is inseparable from the body
its organizing principle, source and mode of regulation
organism, its objectively observable behavior

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

The soul is the entelechy (realization) of the body
Entelechy is an internal force that potentially contains
contains the goal and the final result
The soul is inseparable from the body, but itself is immaterial, incorporeal
That by which we live, feel and think is
this is the soul
“The soul is the cause as that from which movement comes, as the goal and as
essence of animate bodies"
The soul is a certain meaning and form, and not matter, not a substrate
The body has an inherent state of life that forms it
orderliness and harmony
This is the soul, that is, a reflection of the actual
reality of the universal and eternal Mind
Gave an analysis of various parts of the soul: memory, emotions

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

The soul discerns and cognizes existing things, but it itself spends a lot of time
makes mistakes"
“To achieve something reliable about the soul in all
relationships are definitely the hardest"
The death of the body frees the soul for eternal life: the soul
eternal and immortal
Ethics
Introduced the term “ethics” to denote the totality
virtues of human character as a special subject
fields of knowledge
Ethical virtues are character traits
human temperament, they are also called mental
qualities
Identifies 11 ethical virtues:

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

courage, moderation, generosity, majesty,
generosity, ambition, evenness, truthfulness,
courtesy, friendliness, justice
Justice is the most necessary for living together
Virtues of the mind - develop in a person thanks to
learning - wisdom, intelligence,
prudence
Virtues of character are born from habits and morals:
a person acts, gains experience, and based on this
his character traits are formed
Virtue represents the measure, the golden mean
between two extremes: excess and deficiency
Virtue - “the ability to act in the best way
in everything that concerns pleasures and pains, and
depravity is its opposite"

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Virtue is the inner order or disposition of the soul;
order is acquired by a person in the conscious and
purposeful effort
"Table" of virtues and vices
Courage is the middle ground between reckless courage and
cowardice (in relation to danger)
Prudence is the mean between licentiousness and
what could be called "insensitivity"
Generosity is the middle ground between extravagance and stinginess
Majesty is the mean between arrogance and
humiliation
Evenness is the middle ground between anger and
"non-anger"
Truthfulness is the middle ground between boasting and
pretense

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Wit is the middle ground between buffoonery and crudeness
Friendliness is the middle ground between nonsense and
servility
Shyness is the middle ground between shamelessness and timidity
A moral person is one who leads with reason,
associated with virtue
Every choice situation involves conflict.
However, the choice is often experienced much more softly - as
choice between different kinds of goods (knowing virtue,
you can lead a vicious life)
The word “know” is used in two meanings:
1) “knows” is said about someone who only has knowledge;
2) about who applies knowledge in practice
Only those who can
apply it

5. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

If a person knows one thing, but acts differently, it means not
knows, which means he does not have knowledge, but an opinion and he
one should achieve true knowledge that can withstand
practical test
Doctrine of Man
Man is primarily social or political
a creature (“political animal”) gifted with speech and
capable of understanding such concepts as good and evil,
justice and injustice, that is, possessing
moral qualities
Man is born a political being and carries within himself
instinctive desire for life together
Innate inequality of abilities is the cause
bringing people together into groups, hence the difference
functions and place of people in society
There are two principles in a person: biological and social

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

The doctrine of development
Existence cannot arise either from existence or from
carrier, both are impossible,
firstly - because existing already exists, and
secondly, something cannot arise from nothing, which means
emergence and becoming is generally impossible and
the sensory world must be referred to the kingdom
"non-existence"
Act and potency (actuality and possibility)
Act (“energy”) - the active implementation of something
Potency is a force capable of such implementation.
The world movement is an integral process: all its moments
are mutually determined, which presupposes the presence and
single engine

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

God is the first cause of movement, the beginning of all beginnings, so
just as there cannot be an infinite series of reasons or
beginningless, self-determining cause:
the reason of all reasons
According to Aristotle, the deity serves as the subject of the highest and
the most perfect knowledge, since all knowledge
aimed at form and essence, and God is pure form
and the first essence
Concepts of space and time:
substantial - considers space and time
as independent entities, the origins of the world
relational - considers existence
material objects
Categories of space and time - “method” and number
movements, sequence of real and mental
events and conditions are associated with the principle of development

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Aesthetics
beauty rules the world
The specific embodiment of Beauty as a principle of the world
Aristotle saw devices in the Idea or Mind
Doctrine of the State
Aristotle was a staunch defender of individual rights,
private property and the monogamous family, as well as
pro-slavery
Man is a political being, social, carries within himself
instinctive desire for “cohabitation”
He considered education to be the first result of social life
families - husband and wife, parents and children
The need for mutual exchange led to communication between families and
villages

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

This is how the state arose
The state is created not for the sake of living in general, but
live mostly happily
The nature of the state is “ahead” of the family and the individual
Thus, the perfection of a citizen is determined by the qualities
society to which he belongs - who wishes to create
perfect people, must create perfect people
citizens, and who wants to create perfect citizens,
must create a perfect state
He identified three main layers of citizens: the very wealthy,
average, extremely poor
According to Aristotle, the poor and the rich “find themselves in
state elements, diametrically
opposite to each other, depending on the advantage
one or another of the elements is installed and
appropriate form political system»

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Being a supporter of the slave system,
Aristotle closely associated slavery with the issue
property: order is rooted in the very essence of things, in
the power of which already from the moment of birth some
beings are destined for submission, while others are destined for
to rule
This is a general law of nature and the animate are also subject to it.
creatures
According to Aristotle, whoever by nature does not belong to himself,
and to the other, and at the same time still a man, in his own way
nature's slave
The best state is a society that
achieved through the middle element and those
states have best system, where the middle element
presented in more where he has more
value compared to both extreme elements

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

When many people in a state are deprived of political rights,
when there are many poor people in it, then in such a state
there are inevitably hostile elements
The general rule should be: no citizen should
should be given the opportunity to excessively increase one's
excessive political force
Highlighted a special scientific study of a certain
the field of public relations into an independent
political science
Politics is the science, the knowledge of how to best
organize the common life of people in the state.
Politics is an art and skill
government controlled
The purpose of politics is to give citizens high
moral qualities, make them people,
fair

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

The goal of politics is the just (common) good
Achieving this goal is not easy.
A politician must take into account that people have not only
virtues, but also vices
Therefore, the task of politics is not to educate
morally perfect people, and education
virtues in citizens
The virtue of a citizen consists in the ability to fulfill his
civic duty and the ability to obey authorities
and laws
Therefore, the politician must look for the best, that is,
state
devices
Depending on the goals you set for yourself
rulers of the state, Aristotle distinguished between the correct
and wrong government devices

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

Who rules?
Who
enjoys
benefits
board?
One
Human
Minority
Majority
Rulers
(irregular shapes)
Tyranny
Oligarchy
Democracy
All
(correct
e forms)
Monarchy
Aristocra
Tia
Polity

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

The best form of the state considered "polity"
Politia is the "average" form of the state, and the "average"
the element here dominates in everything: in morals -
moderation, in property - average income, in
domination - the middle layer
“A state composed of average people will have and
the best state system"
Aristotle advised to observe the ruling persons,
so that they do not turn public office into
source of personal enrichment
Deviation from law means departure from civilized
forms of government to despotic violence and
degeneration of law into a means of despotism
The main thing in the state is the citizen, that is, the one who
participates in court and administration, performs military service and
performs priestly functions

2. The rise of ancient Greek philosophy

“Government cannot be a matter of law not only by
right, but also contrary to the right: the desire for
forced submission, of course contradicts the idea
rights"
Slaves were excluded from the political community, although they should
were, according to Aristotle, most of
population

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

III. Hellenistic philosophy
School of Cynics
Founded by Socrates' student Antisthenes
Athenian (444/435 – 370/360 BC)
on the Kinosarg hill, hence the name “cynics”
The first nominalist - rejected
existence of general concepts and
asserting that ideas exist
only in the human mind
Objects are separate and isolated, not involved in
any generality; they can be
name and compare, but not define
“A concept is that which expresses what an object
was or that he is"
He opposed the division of the world into
intelligible (“in truth”) and sensible
("in opinion") being
The main task of philosophy is research
the inner world of man
6. Hellenistic
and Roman
philosophy

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

It is good for a person to be virtuous
Preached asceticism, naturalness, priority of personal
interests before the state
Denying traditional religion and the state, the first
declared himself not a citizen of any particular
state, and a citizen of the whole world - a cosmopolitan
We must live according to nature (nature)
The highest criterion of truth is in virtue
The goal of knowledge and philosophy is the coincidence of ethical and
natural in “autarky” (independence) from social
influences and human institutions
Without depending on anything external, limiting ourselves, we thereby
we become more like a deity
A person can achieve a state of self-sufficiency
only by limiting your needs, by
life in work, avoiding such pleasure and that
luxuries that are harmful to humans

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Antisthenes denied laws and all social conventions, and
offered a model for building human society
look in animals
"He who has attained wisdom should not be interested in
sciences, books, so that outsiders do not distract him
things and opinions"

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Diogenes of Sinop (412-323 BC) -
student of Antisthenes
Preached an ascetic image
life, despised luxury,
content with the clothes of a vagabond,
using a pithos (large
vessel for wine), but in the means
expressions were often so
straightforward and rude, which he has earned for himself
names "Dog" and "crazy"
Socrates"
Affirmed the priority of virtue over
laws of society; rejected faith in
gods established by religious
institutions
Rejected civilization, in particular
the state, considering it deceitful
invention of demagogues
6. Hellenistic and
roman philosophy

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Declared culture to be violence against human beings and
called for man to return to the primitive
state
Preached the community of wives and children
He declared himself a citizen of the world, promoted
the relativity of generally accepted moral norms;
the relativity of authority not only among politicians,
but also among philosophers
Plato was considered a talker
Recognized only those based on imitation of nature
ascetic virtue, finding in it the only
human goal

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

School of skepticism
Pyrrho (360-270 BC)
was of the opinion that
nothing really is
neither beautiful nor ugly nor
fair nor unfair,
because everything is the same inside
Everything is not the same, everything is different
(arbitrary) human
regulations and customs
Things are beyond our knowledge;
This is the basis of the method of abstaining from
judgments
As a practical and moral
deduced the ideal method
"equanimity", "serenity"
(ataraxia)
All things are incomprehensible and unknowable
6.
Hellenistic
and Roman
philosophy

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

A person cannot know anything about the qualities of objects and
therefore one should refrain from any
judgments about objects (acatalepsy or aphasia)
I considered such a spiritual mood the most appropriate
theoretically sage
Insisted on immunity to sensual
impressions (ataraxia, that is, complete indifference),
recognizing, however, the unconditional value of virtue as
greater good
Both sensory and rational knowledge are shaky.
Sensory knowledge presents us with objects not
as they really are, but as they are
they seem to us
Reasonable knowledge is based on opinion and habit, and not on
actual knowledge, because every statement can
be countered by another statement
From abstinence from judgment follows ataraxia, leading to
true bliss

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Epicurean School
Epicurus (341-270 BC)
Epicurus developed the ideas of atomism
Could not accept the causality of Democritus,
according to which everything was created as a result
"collisions" and "bounces" of atoms
Attributes to atoms the ability
"deviate" as a result of movement
"connected chain"
Actually attributes to atoms
a certain will, because of which the world does not
is chaotic
Believed that life and death are not the same
terrible for the sage:
“As long as we exist, there is no death; When
there is death, we are no more"
6.
Hellenistic
and Roman
philosophy

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Theory of knowledge
Knowledge is considered as the result of comprehension
sensory experience
The central idea of ​​ethical teaching is the desire
to pleasure (the principle of hedonism), often
contemplative
The highest good for a philosopher is constant
a feeling of pleasure, that is, relief from suffering
To do this, he calls for living wisely and morally,
show respect to the gods
He called his theory of knowledge “canon”, since in its
was based on the doctrine of criteria or canons of truth
He considered the primary and main criterion of truth
the sensations in which life is given to us
The mind was considered completely dependent on sensations

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Since sensory knowledge is infallible, to that extent
errors in knowledge or delusions arise from
erroneous judgments about what is given in sensations
Secondary criteria of truth are
“anticipation” (prolepsis), “enduring” (pathe) and
"imaginative leap of thought"
"Anticipation" is "remembering what is often
appeared to us from the outside”, “an imprint, preceded by
there were sensations" and sensory perceptions
Anticipations are concepts or general ideas
arising on the basis of sensory perceptions from
single representations
“Enduring” - pathe - is more of a criterion
relationship to things than the criterion of truth

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Enduring is the basis for moral assessments in
in accordance with ethical principles
The content of the concept of “figurative flash of thought”
defined as intuition or intellectual
intuition
“Only that which is observable or observable is true.
is caught by a flash of thought,” and “the main sign
perfect and complete knowledge is the ability to quickly
use thought throws"
Knowledge of nature is not an end in itself, it liberates
a person from fear of superstition and religion in general, as well as
from fear of death
This liberation is necessary for happiness and bliss
people whose essence is spiritual
pleasure

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Roman philosopher Titus Lucretius Carus (99-55 BC)
AD) continued the development of Epicureanism in the poem
"On the Nature of Things"
He defended human free will, the absence
influence of gods on people's lives (without rejecting,
however, the very existence of the gods)
Believed that the purpose of a person's life should be
ataraxia, rejected the fear of death itself
death and the afterlife: according to him
opinion, matter is eternal and infinite, and after
When a person dies, his body takes on different forms.
existence
Atoms are not minimal fractional particles
substances, but a kind of creative images,
material for nature
6.
Hellenistic
cultural and
Roman
philosophy

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Stoicism
from the 3rd century BC. until the 3rd century n. e.
Early Stoic Greeks (Zeno
Kitian, Cleanthes, Chrysippus)
Late Stoic Romans (Plutarch,
Cicero, Seneca, Mark
Aurelius)
The school got its name from
the name of the portico Stoa Poikile
(lit. "painted portico"), where
founder of stoicism, Zeno
Chinese, first time
performed independently in
as a teacher

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

The teachings of the Stoics are divided into three parts:
logic, physics and ethics
Comparing philosophy to an orchard:
logic corresponds to the fence that protects him,
physics is a growing tree and ethics is the fruit
The Stoics also compared their classification system with
animals and eggs
In the first case, the bones are logic, the meat is physics, the soul
animal - ethics; in the second - the shell is logic,
the white is physics, and the yolk of an egg is ethics
The logic of the Stoics, in addition to the formal logical theory,
contains a study of epistemological and
linguistic problems
To syllogistics the Stoics add five forms of inference, from
which all correct conclusions must consist of

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Stoic physics
The Stoics imagine the world as a living organism,
governed by immanent divine law
logos
Human destiny is a projection of this logos,
This is why the Stoics objected to the idea of ​​arguing with fate
or her tests
The main obstacle to harmony with your destiny is
these are passions
The ideal of the Stoics was the imperturbable sage
Everything that exists is corporeal, and differs only
degree of “coarseness” or “subtlety” of matter
Power is not something immaterial or abstract, but is
the finest matter

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

The power that controls the world as a whole is God
All matter is only modifications in the eternal
changing this divine power and again and again
dissolving in it
Things and events are repeated after each periodic
ignition and purification of space
Logos is inextricably linked with matter
He is mixed with her; it completely permeates,
shapes and shapes it, thereby creating the cosmos
The relationship of everything to everything is understood as meaningful
order realized by divine will
The Stoics call this order fate, and the predetermined
their goal is providence

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Stoic ethics
All people - citizens of space as a world state
All are equal in the face of world law: free and slaves,
Greeks and barbarians, men and women
Every moral action is, according to the Stoics,
nothing other than self-preservation and self-affirmation and
it increases the common good
All sins and immoral acts are
self-destruction, loss of one's own humanity
nature
Correct desires and abstinences, actions and deeds -
guarantee of human happiness, for this it is necessary in every possible way
develop your personality as opposed to everything external, not
bow before any force

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

The goal of man is to live "in accordance with
nature"
This is the only way to achieve harmony
“Whoever agrees, fate leads him; whoever disagrees, fate leads him
drags" (Seneca)
The Stoics distinguish four types of affects: pleasure,
disgust, lust and fear
They must be avoided using correct judgment
(orthos logos)
You should prefer things that are in accordance with nature
There are good and bad deeds, average deeds
are called “appropriate” if they implement
natural predisposition
During the Roman Empire, the teachings of the Stoics became
a kind of religion for the people

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Neoplatonism - the direction of ancient
philosophy of the III-VI centuries, connecting and
systematizing elements of philosophy
Plato, Aristotle and Eastern teachings
The most famous and significant
the exponent of the ideas of Neoplatonism is
Plotinus (204-270)
Neoplatonism - the doctrine of hierarchical
organized world, generated from
a beginning beyond him;
the doctrine of the “ascent” of the soul to its source
Triad One-Mind-Soul
Every thing as such is first and foremost
different from everything else, as something
unique "one"
6.
Hellenistic
and Roman
philosophy

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Therefore, the One, inseparably inherent in everything that exists, is also
all that is, taken in an indivisible multitude, and all that is,
taken in absolute singularity
That. from the One everything “poured”, “grows” by nature
this position, without the loss of the parent and without his
conscious will, but only on
the necessity of his nature
The One, acting as the primordial essence, is neither
mind, nor the potential subject of a reasonable
knowledge
The hierarchy of being spreads from the One, along the steps
His descent to matter - the lower limit
The cosmos is in constant rotation and change of steps
being; at the same time, the Universe (Universum) at Plotinus
remains static, for the one principle, the Good,
which exists above everything, inescapably

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

This is the perfect beginning, supersensible and
superconceivable, is ineffable, absolute
Thankfully
Like “a source fills rivers without losing anything, like
the sun illuminates the dark atmosphere, not at all
darkening itself, like a flower giving off its fragrance, not
becoming odorless from this” - this is how the One pours out
yourself, without losing your completeness, invariably remaining in yourself
The second hypostasis - Mind (nous) - is born as a consequence of this
emanations of the One
Thoughts, ideas, images generated by the Mind, like the Mind itself,
continue to be in communion and unity with the absolute
Thankfully
The Mind “dared” to fall away from the One, the Soul - from the Mind
The intermediate level between hypostases is the number
- the principle of every thing and everything immaterial

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

The indistinguishable One, coming to differentiation with the help of
numbers, achieves qualitative and semantic distinction in
Ume
The One, overflowing with itself, requires a transition into something else;
since it remains constant and does not decrease, otherwise
only “reflects” it, and the Mind is intelligible
in the image of an incomprehensible essence
The third hypostasis - the World Soul (psyche) - a consequence
descent of Mind
The soul no longer thinks of itself as belonging to the One, but
only strives for Him
The soul gives rise to matter - the beginning of the physical and
sensory world
There are two types, two parts of the soul: the higher and the lower

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

The lowest is human nature and is directed towards matter
(density and darkness); the highest is divine
involvement and addressed to the spirit (infinity and light)
The highest is born from the gods and ethereal stellar spirits;
the lower breeds in the kingdoms of demons, people,
animals, plants and minerals
In general, the “soul” is the semantic functioning of the Mind behind
beyond it, the “logos of the mind”
The soul is something united and indivisible, a substance; in its
basically she is incorporeal and immortal
The sensory cosmos has a hierarchical structure - everything
increasing weakening of the embodiment of ideas (eidos) according to
as we move from the “highest heaven” to the “earth” - and
characterized by the identity of self-awareness and
amateur performances at all levels

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

Time as becoming is preceded by non-becoming
eternity, which in comparison with pure eidos is also
there is eternal becoming - living eternity or eternal
life
Time is neither movement, nor number or measure of movement, nor
its other attributes
Time is the being of eternity, its moving image or eternal
energy of the “world soul”
Matter - devoid of any metaphysical
much independence
Matter is only the “receiver” of eternal ideas, eidos;
it is devoid of quality, quantity, mass, etc.; in pure
form is nothing more than a substrate of change,
endless uncertainty, carrying
In comparison with the eternally existing eidos, matter is a principle
their destruction and therefore - the primary inevitable evil

6. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

However, although due to this the sensory world is
respectively unreasonable and evil, at the same time he
reasonable and beautiful, because sensually
in the perceived image manifests its ideal
prototype, since it is involved in the divine essence
The doctrine of purification, salvation of the soul (soteriology)
The return of the soul to the Divine takes place in reverse
raising her to Him
As matter thickens, the Divine principle becomes more and more
is enveloped in the shells of nature and is pushed away from
One
Emanations Divine power through the Mind and Soul gradually
weaken until they reach complete “freezing” in
matter devoid of truth and good, which is
necessary evil due to its distance from the Divine

3. Hellenistic and Roman philosophy

This happens, firstly, aesthetically, when the soul
joins the true Beauty that
imbued with ideal meaning;
secondly, ethically, when in prayer work,
ascetic feat, the deification of a person takes place
The good (true bliss) consists in
state of ecstasy to come into complete union with
Deity, to which asceticism and virtue, creativity lead
and contemplation, true love
Plotinus had a significant influence on the medieval
philosophy and especially the thinkers of the Renaissance
In 529, Emperor Justinian issued a ban on
activities of philosophical schools
Justinian banned the study of pagan philosophy and
disbanded the Platonic Academy in Athens
Formally, this event marks the end of ancient philosophy.

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One of the earliest literary monuments of Ancient China, which sets out philosophical ideas, is the I Ching (“Book of Changes”). Attached to the title of this source is deep meaning, the essence of which is an attempt to reflect the processes occurring in nature, including its celestial sphere with the natural system of stars. Celestial nature (the world), together with the Sun and the Moon, in the course of their daily orbits, now rising and now falling, creates all the diversity of the constantly changing celestial world. Hence the name of the literary monument - “The Book of Changes”. Strictly speaking, “The Book of Changes” is not yet a philosophical work, but a kind of literary and poetic laboratory in which the transition from pre-philosophical and to some extent mythological ideas to philosophical thinking itself takes place , and the collectivist tribal consciousness develops into personal philosophical views absolutely wise people. “The Book of Changes” occupies a special place in the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought. The most prominent philosophers of Ancient China, who largely determined its problems and development for centuries to come, were Laozi (second half of the 6th - first half of the 5th centuries BC) and Confucius (Kung Fu-tzu, 551 - 479 BC). e.). Although other thinkers also worked in Ancient China, first of all, the philosophical heritage of Laozi and Confucius gives a fairly objective idea of ​​the philosophical quest of ancient Chinese thinkers. Laozi's ideas are presented in the book “Tao Te Ching”, which was prepared for publication by his followers and appeared at the turn of the 4th - 3rd centuries BC. e.

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The Book of Changes, the works of thinkers Lao Tzu and Confucius - without these three things, the philosophy of Ancient China would have resembled a building without a foundation or a tree without roots - so great is their contribution to one of the most profound philosophical systems in the world. Philosophy of ancient China: Yin and Yang, as well as the eight trigrams formed from them - the basis of predictions according to the Book of Changes "I-Ching", that is, "Book of Changes", is one of the earliest monuments of the philosophy of Ancient China. The title of this book has a deep meaning, which lies in the principles of variability of nature and human life as a result of a natural change in the energies of Yin and Yang in the Universe. The Sun and Moon and other celestial bodies in the process of their rotation create all the diversity of the constantly changing celestial world. Hence the name of the first work of philosophy of Ancient China - “The Book of Changes”. In the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought, the “Book of Changes” occupies a special place. For centuries, almost every sage of the Celestial Empire tried to comment on and interpret the contents of the “Book of Changes.” This commentary and research activity, which lasted for centuries, laid the foundations of the philosophy of Ancient China and became the source of its subsequent development. Prominent representatives philosophy of Ancient China, which largely determined its problematics and studied issues for two millennia to come, are Lao Tzu and Confucius. They lived during the 5th–6th century. BC e. Although Ancient China also remembers other famous thinkers, it is still primarily the legacy of these two people that is considered the foundation of the philosophical quest of the Celestial Empire.

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The central concept that is discussed in the teachings of Lao Tzu is "Tao". The main meaning of the character “dao” in Chinese is “path”, “road”, but it can also be translated as “root cause”, “principle”. “Tao” for Lao Tzu means the natural path of all things, the universal law of development and change in the world. “Tao” is the immaterial spiritual basis of all phenomena and things in nature, including humans. These are the words with which Lao Tzu begins his Canon on Tao and Virtue: “You cannot know Tao only by talking about It. And you can't human name name that beginning of heaven and earth, which is the mother of all that exists. Only one freed from worldly passions is able to see Him. And the one who preserves these passions can only see His creations.”

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ConfuciusThe further formation and development of ancient Chinese philosophy is associated with the activities of Confucius, perhaps the most outstanding Chinese thinker, whose teachings still have millions of admirers and not only in China. The emergence of Confucius as a thinker was greatly facilitated by his acquaintance with ancient Chinese manuscripts: “The Book of Songs” (“Shijing”), “Books of Historical Legends” (“Shujing”). He put them in proper order, edited them and made them available to the public. Confucius became very popular for many centuries to come due to the pithy and numerous comments he made on the “Book of Changes.” Confucius's own views were set forth in the book “Conversations and Judgments” (“Lun Yu”), which was published by students and followers based on his statements and teachings. Confucius is the creator of an original ethical and political teaching, some provisions of which have not lost their significance to this day. The main concepts of Confucianism that form the foundation of this teaching are “ren” (philanthropy, humanity) and “li”. “Ren” acts both as the foundation of ethical and political teaching and as its ultimate goal. The basic principle of “ren”: “What you don’t want for yourself, don’t do to people.” The means of acquiring “ren” is the practical embodiment of “li”. The criterion for the applicability and acceptability of “whether” is “and” (duty, justice). “Li” (respect, community norms, ceremonial, social regulations) includes a wide range of rules regulating essentially all spheres of social life, starting from the family and including state relations, as well as relations within society - between individuals and various social groups. Moral principles, social relations, problems of government are the main themes in the teachings of Confucius. As for the levels of knowledge, he makes the following gradation: “The highest knowledge is innate knowledge. Below is the knowledge acquired by teaching. Even lower is the knowledge acquired as a result of overcoming difficulties. The most insignificant is the one who does not want to learn instructive lessons from difficulties.” So, we can rightfully say that Laozi and Confucius, with their philosophical creativity, laid a solid foundation for the development of Chinese philosophy for many centuries to come.

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Philosophical ideas in Ancient India they begin to form around the 2nd millennium BC. e. Humanity does not know any earlier examples. In our time, they have become known thanks to ancient Indian literary monuments under the general name “Vedas”, literally meaning knowledge, knowledge. The “Vedas” are a kind of hymns, prayers, chants, spells, etc. They were written approximately in the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Sanskrit. In the Vedas, for the first time, an attempt is made to approach a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, they are nevertheless considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources.

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Buddhism made a significant contribution to the development of philosophy in Ancient India. The founder of Buddhism is considered to be Siddhartha Guatama, or Buddha (c. 583 - 483 BC). The name Siddhartha means “one who has achieved the goal,” Gautama is a family name. The search for a path leading to overcoming the suffering experienced by people became the main driving force in Gautama’s life. He renounces his throne and family and becomes a wandering ascetic. At the beginning he turned to yogic meditation, which is the realization of the desire to achieve the divine principle of the human personality through the discipline of body and mind. But this method of approaching God did not satisfy him. Then he went through the path of strict asceticism. Gautama's austerity was so severe that he was close to death. However, this path did not lead him to his goal. Finally, he sat down under a tree, facing the east, and decided not to leave this place until he received enlightenment. On the night of the full moon, Gautama overcame the four stages of meditative trance, was precisely aware of what was happening, and in the last watch of the night he gained enlightenment and became Buddha, i.e. “Enlightened One.” Buddha saw the path leading to liberation from all suffering, i.e. to “nirvana” “At the age of thirty-five he preached his first sermon, which is called “The First Turn of the Wheel of Diarma.” Buddha called his path the middle one, because he rejected both asceticism and hedonism, which presupposes the pursuit of pleasure, as one-sided extremes. In this sermon he proclaimed the “Four Noble Truths”.

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The philosophy of Ancient Greece is the greatest flowering of human genius. The ancient Greeks had the priority of creating philosophy as a science about the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking; as a system of ideas that explores the cognitive, value, ethical and aesthetic attitude of man to the world. Philosophers such as Socrates, Aristotle and Plato are the founders of philosophy as such. Originating in Ancient Greece, philosophy formed a method that could be used in almost all areas of life. Greek philosophy cannot be understood without aesthetics - the theory of beauty and harmony. Ancient Greek aesthetics was part of undivided knowledge. The beginnings of many sciences have not yet branched off into independent branches from a single tree human cognition. Unlike the ancient Egyptians, who developed science in a practical aspect, the ancient Greeks preferred theory. Philosophy and philosophical approaches to solving any scientific problem lie at the basis of ancient Greek science. Therefore, to single out scientists who dealt with “pure” scientific problems, it is forbidden. In ancient Greece, all scientists were philosophers, thinkers and had knowledge of basic philosophical categories. The idea of ​​the beauty of the world runs through all ancient aesthetics. In the worldview of ancient Greek natural philosophers there is not a shadow of doubt about the objective existence of the world and the reality of its beauty. For the first natural philosophers, beauty is the universal harmony and beauty of the Universe. In their teaching, the aesthetic and cosmological appear in unity. The Universe for the ancient Greek natural philosophers is space (Universe, peace, harmony, decoration, beauty, outfit, order). The overall picture of the world includes the idea of ​​its harmony and beauty. Therefore, at first all the sciences in Ancient Greece were combined into one - cosmology.

Philosophy of antiquity

The presentation was prepared by the teacher of Ridder Agricultural and Technical College Malon L.V.

• Life is suffering.
• The cause of suffering is desires.
• Getting rid of desires frees you from suffering.
• There is a way of escape.

• Samsara is the doctrine of rebirth.

• Meditation is complete self-absorption, contemplative reflection.

• Nirvana is a state of bliss, non-existence.

Materialists of Ancient India

LOKAYATA

• There is only the world that is perceived by the senses.

• The purpose of life is to care for the well-being of present existence

SANKHYA

• The world is material and consists of 5 primary elements.

• There are 3 sources of reliable knowledge:

• Sense organs
• Intelligence
• Evidence from authorities

There's a lot going on in the world

rebirth.

birth can be achieved if you comply with the following requirements:

• Refusal of all material things
• No harm to the environment
• Possess qualities (peace of mind, moderation, detachment, patience, faith, concentration)
• Longing for liberation
• Achieving True Knowledge
• Doing good deeds.

• “Let the ruler be the ruler, the minister the minister, the father the father, the son the son.”

• "Noble Husband"
• - a person who observes etiquette, moral laws, kind and fair, respectful to elders and superiors"

• “What you don’t wish for yourself, don’t do to others”

Tao is the law, the path of development.

A person must observe the principle of following two Taos: the Tao of the universe and the Tao of man. If the principle is observed, even inaction leads to freedom, prosperity and success. If not observed, any action contrary to Tao leads to illness, misfortune, and death.

• Existence consists of matter and idea.

• The Earth is the center of the Universe.

• The soul is immortal.

• In an ideal world there are gods, ideas of things, immortal souls.

• The universe is finite. Everything has a reason and purpose.
• Nature is built on a hierarchical basis.

• Man is a social animal.

• Human virtues:

• -reasonable wisdom
• -practical wisdom
• -judgment
• -courage
• -moderation
• -generosity
• -truthfulness
• -friendliness
• - courtesy

• There are an infinite number of universes.

• Atoms are indivisible particles moving in the void.

• The worlds are infinite in number and differ from each other in size.

• In some of them there is neither sun nor moon, in others the sun and moon are larger than ours, in others there are not one of them, but several.

• In one place worlds arise, in another they decline. They are destroyed when they collide with each other. Some of the worlds are devoid of animals, plants and any kind of moisture.

• The distances between the worlds are not the same; in one place there are more worlds, in another there are fewer.
• Some worlds are expanding, others have reached full bloom, and others are already declining.

• A person owes his birth to himself and his parents.

• Man is the result of biological evolution.

• There may be gods, but they cannot in any way interfere in the lives of people and earthly affairs.

• The fate of a person depends on himself, and not on the gods.

• The human soul dies along with the body.

• Everything is in a state of constant change and struggle (war), one arises due to the destruction of the other and exists as a tense harmonious relationship of various opposites.

• The world is eternal. Its basis is fire. The cooling of the fire gives rise to other “elements” and a variety of things.

The cosmos is an “eternally living fire,” and this physical side of his being allows him each time to make a descent from a pure state (world fire) to a state of connectedness with other elements (natural sensory life).

• Those who deserve contempt

as they say, neither to oneself nor to another.

• Choose the lesser evil.

• History is the teacher of life.

• Not knowing history means always being a child.

• How deep are the roots of stupidity!

Often a person has no other enemy than himself.

The welfare of the people is the highest law.

Truth defends itself.

Living means thinking.

Answer the questions

• What are the characteristic features of the philosophy of the ancient world?

• Highlight the characteristic features of ancient philosophy?

• What are the similarities and differences between the philosophies of ancient India and China?

Plan for studying new material 1. Periods of development and cultural origins of ancient Indian philosophy. 2. Philosophical schools of Ancient India. World and man in Indian philosophy. 3. Periods of development and cultural origins of Chinese philosophy. 4. Philosophical schools of Ancient China. Basic ideas of Taoism and Confucianism.

Table “Periods of development of Indian philosophy” 1 Vedic period Until the 6th-5th centuries. BC. 2 Classical period of the 6th century. BC. – first half of the 1st millennium 3 Postclassical (scholastic) period First half of the 1st millennium – XVIII century 4 The period of neo-Hinduism, or modern Indian philosophy XIX-XX centuries

The law of karma The law of karma regulates a specific bodily incarnation The law of karma regulates a specific bodily incarnation All actions, good or bad, are reflected in the state of a person’s karma All actions, good or bad, are reflected in the state of a person’s karma Future incarnation depends on the quality of karma Future incarnation depends on the quality of karma

General concept of all ancient Indian philosophy The idea that all earthly life filled with suffering The idea that all earthly life is filled with suffering Suffering will continue forever, since samsara exists Suffering will continue forever, since samsara exists The ultimate goal of every philosophical theory is to find a path to liberation from suffering The ultimate goal of every philosophical theory is to find a path to liberation from suffering

Orthodox schools (astika) rely on the traditions of the Vedas Vedanta Suggests carefully studying the texts of the Vedas Yoga Adds a system of physical and spiritual exercises, the purpose of which is liberation from the world, renunciation of pain and suffering Vaisheshika In order to avoid suffering, one should accept the reality of this what she is

Unorthodox schools (nastika) offer more unconventional ways of liberation from suffering Jainism Argues that the body is the prison of the immortal soul. The soul strives for good, the body for sin. The way to get rid of the tyranny of the body is asceticism and ahimsa Buddhism Sees the liberation of the soul from suffering in enlightenment and the achievement of nirvana

Siddhartha Gautama Buddha (BC) – founder of Buddhism

Righteous Behavior Righteous behavior is obedience to the commandments “do not kill,” “do not commit adultery,” “do not lie,” “do not drink alcohol.” Righteous behavior is obedience to the commandments “do not kill,” “do not commit adultery,” “do not lie,” “do not drink alcohol.”

Character traits Indian philosophy Philosophy is considered as a guide to life The initial stage of philosophical teachings is pessimism Belief in the eternal moral law– karma The most important task of a person is control over one’s own self The goal of a person is nirvana

Table “Periods of development of Chinese philosophy” 1 Period of ancient Chinese philosophy VI-III centuries. BC. 2 Medieval (postclassical) period III century. BC. – XIX century 3 New Period of Chinese Philosophy Ser. XIX – 1919 4 The newest period of Chinese philosophy Since 1919

ANCIENT CHINESE RELIGIOUS, RELIGIOUS-PHILOSOPHICAL AND HISTORICAL LITERATURE THAT INFLUENCED THE FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY “Book of Songs” “Book of History” “Book of Changes” “Book of Rites” Chronicle Historical manuscripts Commentary on the “Book of Changes” » Ancient Chinese philosophy

Basic provisions of Taoism Everything in the world develops according to Tao - the natural path of all things. Thanks to the alternation of yin and yang, everything is in constant change; Human intervention in the natural course of things is doomed to failure; The goal of man is a harmonious fusion with nature, harmony with the surrounding world, bringing satisfaction and peace; The development of society and civilization leads a person to disharmony with the world. It is necessary to return to the roots, to become closer to the earth and nature

Yin and yang Graphic symbol yin and yang - a circle divided into two equal parts, interpenetrating each other. Graphic symbol of yin and yang - a circle divided into two equal parts, interpenetrating each other. Taken separately from each other, these principles are flawed and incomplete, but, merging together, they form a harmonious unity. Taken separately from each other, these principles are flawed and incomplete, but merging together, they form a harmonious unity. The interaction of two principles gives rise to movement, development. The interaction of two principles gives birth to movement, development.

Confucianism Confucius (BC) - ancient thinker and philosopher of China, founder philosophical teaching- Confucianism

Traditions are embodied in rituals and norms of politeness. If a person follows all the instructions, then there will be no room for evil in his behavior. A person must learn from the lessons of the past and not forget his roots. Therefore, good manners are associated with the veneration of ancestors

Parents and elders are the embodiment of traditions. Obedience and respect for their point of view are based on the principle of filial piety. It is important “not to do to others what you do not wish for yourself.” Reciprocity and love for others are necessary in behavior - zhen

Characteristic features of Chinese philosophy Chinese philosophy is entirely subordinated to spiritual and moral issues. The main interest of ancient Chinese philosophers is human behavior and inner world In Chinese philosophy, the ideas of humanity (Confucianism) and naturalness (Taoism) are developed in detail.

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One of the earliest literary monuments of Ancient China, which sets out philosophical ideas, is the I Ching (“Book of Changes”). The name of this source has a deep meaning, the essence of which is an attempt to reflect the processes occurring in nature, including its celestial sphere with the natural system of stars. Celestial nature (the world), together with the Sun and the Moon, in the course of their daily orbits, now rising and now falling, creates all the diversity of the constantly changing celestial world. Hence the name of the literary monument - “Book of Changes”. Strictly speaking, “The Book of Changes” is not yet a philosophical work, but a kind of literary and poetic laboratory, in which the transition from pre-philosophical and, to some extent, mythological ideas to philosophical thinking itself takes place, and collectivist tribal consciousness develops into completely personal philosophical views wise people. “The Book of Changes” occupies a special place in the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought. The most prominent philosophers of Ancient China, who largely determined its problems and development for centuries to come, were Laozi (second half of the 6th - first half of the 5th centuries BC) and Confucius (Kung Fu-tzu, 551 - 479 BC). e.). Although other thinkers also worked in Ancient China, first of all, the philosophical heritage of Laozi and Confucius gives a fairly objective idea of ​​the philosophical quest of ancient Chinese thinkers. Laozi's ideas are presented in the book “Tao Te Ching”, which was prepared for publication by his followers and appeared at the turn of the 4th - 3rd centuries BC. e.

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The Book of Changes, the works of thinkers Lao Tzu and Confucius - without these three things, the philosophy of Ancient China would have resembled a building without a foundation or a tree without roots - so great is their contribution to one of the most profound philosophical systems in the world. Philosophy of ancient China: Yin and Yang, as well as the eight trigrams formed from them - the basis of predictions according to the Book of Changes “I-Ching”, that is, “Book of Changes”, is one of the earliest monuments of the philosophy of Ancient China. The title of this book has a deep meaning, which lies in the principles of variability of nature and human life as a result of a natural change in the energies of Yin and Yang in the Universe. The Sun and Moon and other celestial bodies in the process of their rotation create all the diversity of the constantly changing celestial world. Hence the name of the first work of philosophy of Ancient China - “The Book of Changes”. In the history of ancient Chinese philosophical thought, the “Book of Changes” occupies a special place. For centuries, almost every sage of the Celestial Empire tried to comment on and interpret the contents of the “Book of Changes.” This commentary and research activity, which lasted for centuries, laid the foundations of the philosophy of Ancient China and became the source of its subsequent development. The most prominent representatives of the philosophy of Ancient China, who largely determined its problems and studied issues for two millennia to come, were Lao Tzu and Confucius. They lived during the 5th–6th centuries. BC e. Although Ancient China also remembers other famous thinkers, it is still primarily the legacy of these two people that is considered the foundation of the philosophical quest of the Celestial Empire.

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Lao Tzu - “The Wise Old Man” The ideas of Lao Tzu (real name - Li Er) are set out in the book “Tao Te Ching”, in our opinion - “The Canon of Tao and Virtue”. Lao Tzu left this work, consisting of 5 thousand hieroglyphs, to a guard on the Chinese border when he went to the West at the end of his life. The significance of the Tao Te Jing can hardly be overestimated for the philosophy of Ancient China. The central concept that is discussed in the teachings of Lao Tzu is "Tao". The main meaning of the character “dao” in Chinese is “path”, “road”, but it can also be translated as “root cause”, “principle”. “Tao” for Lao Tzu means the natural path of all things, the universal law of development and change in the world. “Tao” is the immaterial spiritual basis of all phenomena and things in nature, including humans. These are the words with which Lao Tzu begins his Canon on Tao and Virtue: “You cannot know Tao only by talking about It. And it is impossible to call by a human name that beginning of heaven and earth, which is the mother of everything that exists. Only one freed from worldly passions is able to see Him. And the one who preserves these passions can only see His creations.”

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Confucius The further formation and development of ancient Chinese philosophy is associated with the activities of Confucius, perhaps the most outstanding Chinese thinker, whose teachings still have millions of admirers and not only in China. The emergence of Confucius as a thinker was greatly facilitated by his acquaintance with ancient Chinese manuscripts: “The Book of Songs” (“Shijing”), “Books of Historical Legends” (“Shujing”). He put them in proper order, edited them and made them available to the public. Confucius became very popular for many centuries to come due to the pithy and numerous comments he made on the “Book of Changes.” Confucius's own views were set forth in the book “Conversations and Judgments” (“Lun Yu”), which was published by students and followers based on his statements and teachings. Confucius is the creator of an original ethical and political teaching, some provisions of which have not lost their significance to this day. The main concepts of Confucianism that form the foundation of this teaching are “ren” (philanthropy, humanity) and “li”. “Ren” acts both as the foundation of ethical and political teaching and as its ultimate goal. The basic principle of “ren”: “What you don’t want for yourself, don’t do to people.” The means of acquiring “ren” is the practical embodiment of “li”. The criterion for the applicability and acceptability of “whether” is “and” (duty, justice). “Li” (respect, community norms, ceremonial, social regulations) includes a wide range of rules regulating essentially all spheres of social life, starting from the family and including state relations, as well as relations within society - between individuals and various social groups. Moral principles, social relations, problems of government are the main themes in the teachings of Confucius. As for the levels of knowledge, he makes the following gradation: “The highest knowledge is innate knowledge. Below is the knowledge acquired by teaching. Even lower is the knowledge acquired as a result of overcoming difficulties. The most insignificant is the one who does not want to learn instructive lessons from difficulties.” So, we can rightfully say that Laozi and Confucius, with their philosophical creativity, laid a solid foundation for the development of Chinese philosophy for many centuries to come.

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Philosophical ideas in Ancient India began to take shape around the 2nd millennium BC. e. Humanity does not know any earlier examples. In our time, they have become known thanks to ancient Indian literary monuments under the general name “Vedas”, literally meaning knowledge, knowledge. The “Vedas” are a kind of hymns, prayers, chants, spells, etc. They were written approximately in the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Sanskrit. In the Vedas, for the first time, an attempt is made to approach a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, they are nevertheless considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources.

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Buddhism made a significant contribution to the development of philosophy in Ancient India. The founder of Buddhism is considered to be Siddhartha Guatama, or Buddha (c. 583 - 483 BC). The name Siddhartha means “one who has achieved the goal,” Gautama is a family name. The search for a path leading to overcoming the suffering experienced by people became the main driving force in Gautama’s life. He renounces his throne and family and becomes a wandering ascetic. At the beginning he turned to yogic meditation, which is the realization of the desire to achieve the divine principle of the human personality through the discipline of body and mind. But this method of approaching God did not satisfy him. Then he went through the path of strict asceticism. Gautama's austerity was so severe that he was close to death. However, this path did not lead him to his goal. Finally, he sat down under a tree, facing the east, and decided not to leave this place until he received enlightenment. On the night of the full moon, Gautama overcame four stages of meditative trance, was precisely aware of what was happening, and in the last watch of the night he gained enlightenment and became Buddha, i.e. “Enlightened One.” Buddha saw the path leading to liberation from all suffering, that is, to “nirvana.” At the age of thirty-five, he preached his first sermon, which is called “The First Turn of the Wheel of Diarma.” Buddha called his path the middle one, because he rejected both asceticism and hedonism, which presupposes the pursuit of pleasure, as one-sided extremes. In this sermon he proclaimed the “Four Noble Truths.” Their essence boils down to the following: all human life is continuous suffering; the cause of suffering is the desire for pleasure; Suffering can only be stopped by renouncing attachments and detachment; leads to the end of suffering “Noble Eightfold Path”, which involves the use of right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration.

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The philosophy of Ancient Greece is the greatest flowering of human genius. The ancient Greeks had the priority of creating philosophy as a science about the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking; as a system of ideas that explores the cognitive, value, ethical and aesthetic attitude of man to the world. Philosophers such as Socrates, Aristotle and Plato are the founders of philosophy as such. Originating in Ancient Greece, philosophy formed a method that could be used in almost all areas of life. Greek philosophy cannot be understood without aesthetics - the theory of beauty and harmony. Ancient Greek aesthetics was part of undivided knowledge. The beginnings of many sciences have not yet branched off into independent branches from the single tree of human knowledge. Unlike the ancient Egyptians, who developed science in a practical aspect, the ancient Greeks preferred theory. Philosophy and philosophical approaches to solving any scientific problem lie at the basis of ancient Greek science. Therefore, it is impossible to single out scientists who dealt with “pure” scientific problems. In Ancient Greece, all scientists were philosophers, thinkers and had knowledge of basic philosophical categories. The idea of ​​the beauty of the world runs through all ancient aesthetics. In the worldview of ancient Greek natural philosophers there is not a shadow of doubt about the objective existence of the world and the reality of its beauty. For the first natural philosophers, beauty is the universal harmony and beauty of the Universe. In their teaching, the aesthetic and cosmological appear in unity. The Universe for the ancient Greek natural philosophers is space (Universe, peace, harmony, decoration, beauty, outfit, order). The overall picture of the world includes the idea of ​​its harmony and beauty. Therefore, at first all the sciences in Ancient Greece were combined into one - cosmology.