Specifics of social cognition and methods of social cognition. Social cognition and its specificity Specificity of the object of cognition
Topic 14.
Process social cognition in contrast to the knowledge of nature, it is closely related to the knowledge of human activity, setting certain goals for itself. The social qualities of people, their spiritual and psychological state (needs, interests, goals, ideals, hopes, doubts, fear, knowledge and ignorance, hatred and mercy, love and greed, deception, etc.) can have a significant impact on the functioning of social laws, their modification, form of manifestation, substantive aspect of analysis and explanation of certain events and facts.
If in natural science it is initially possible to consider objects by themselves, moving away from their connections and from the cognizing subject, then in social cognition from the very beginning we are dealing not with objects or their systems, but with a system of relations and feelings of subjects. Social existence is an organic unity of the material and spiritual, objective and subjective.
Social existence is an objective reality. Depending on what part of this reality is included in the immediate sphere of practical, and therefore cognitive, interaction between people, it becomes an object of social cognition. Due to this circumstance, the subject of social cognition has a complex systemic character.
The success of social cognition depends on many factors - firstly, on the degree of maturity of each of the constituent elements of the subject of cognition, no matter in what form it appears; secondly, from the degree of consistency of their unity - the subject is not the sum of elements, but a system; thirdly, on the degree of activity of the subject’s character in connection with the assessment of certain social phenomena that a person encounters, and the actions that occur in connection with this assessment.
Marx formulated one of the basic principles of social cognition: social cognition is not a passive contemplation of an object, but acts as an effective activity of the knowing subject. However, in the relationship of the subject to the object, the activity of the subject cannot be exaggerated, because in practice this leads to subjectivist-voluntaristic methods.
It should be noted that there is another extreme - objectivism, leading to the denial of the need for active activity of the masses and individuals
Due to the originality and uniqueness of historical events repeatability in social life it is much more difficult to identify than in nature. However, thanks to the repeated implementation of certain actions by previous generations, invariant, essential connections are revealed, while the subjective side is activated. Laws are formed that do not depend on the consciousness of subsequent generations, but on the contrary, they determine their activities. The laws of society manifest themselves in a unique way, the relationships historical necessity and conscious activities of people are always specific. This determines the characteristics of society as an object of cognition and the specificity of social cognition.
The diversity of social existence determines the diversity of types of knowledge about society. Among them, humanitarian, socio-economic and socio-philosophical knowledge stand out as the main ones.
The system-forming basis of all social knowledge is socio-philosophical knowledge. They arise on the basis of a generalization of the culture and practice of their era and are focused on developing the most general ideas about the natural and social existence of man, the laws of his practical, ethical and aesthetic relations to the world. They identify the basic forms of human activity, the basic laws of their functioning and development as social systems, and analyze their interrelation and subordination.
The foundation of social knowledge is social facts, which must be considered not just as a “world of things”, but, first of all, as a world of subjective essences and human values. Unlike natural phenomena, all social facts represent a unity of the material and spiritual, subjective and objective. Interpretation of facts can be like true and false.
The most important method of theoretical research of social facts, its principle is historical approach. It requires not just a statement of events in chronological order, but also consideration of the process of their formation, connection with the generating conditions, i.e. identifying the essence, objective causes and connections, patterns of development.
The inclusion of interests in social cognition does not deny the existence of objective truth. But its comprehension is a complex dialectical process of the relationship between adequacy and illusoryness, absoluteness and relativity of social truth and politics.
Thus, the cognitive capabilities of society are formed as a result of its practical-cognitive activity and change with its development.
2. Society: foundations of philosophical analysis.
To live, people must recreate their lives in all its scope and content. It is joint activity By production of their lives brings people together. The objective world becomes a human world only if it is involved in human activity.
Connecting means are objects and phenomena of material and spiritual world: tools, natural environment, knowledge, ideals, etc. These connections are generally called social relations; they form a stable system - society.
Society arises and exists, therefore, through the interaction of two factors: activity and social relations.
Social relations are diverse. There are economic, socio-political, legal, moral, aesthetic, etc.
Defining society as a whole, we can say that it is a dynamic, historically self-developing system of social relations between people” between man and the world. Society is “man himself in his social relations” 1.
There are many philosophical concepts society, but each of them is more or less limited, schematic in comparison with real life. And none of them can claim a monopoly on the truth.
Knowledge of the laws of society has certain specifics compared to knowledge of natural phenomena. In society there are people endowed with consciousness and will; a complete repetition of events is impossible here. The results of cognition are influenced by the actions of political parties, all kinds of economic, political and military blocs and alliances. Social experiments have enormous consequences for the destinies of people, human communities and states, and, under certain conditions, all of humanity.
One of the features of social development is its multivariate. The course of social processes is influenced by various natural and especially social factors, and the conscious activity of people.
Very briefly, the specifics of social cognition can be defined as follows:
In social cognition, the absolutization of the natural or the social, the reduction of the social to the natural and vice versa is unacceptable. At the same time, one should always remember that society is an integral part of nature and they cannot be opposed.
Social cognition, dealing not with things but with relationships, is inextricably linked with the values, attitudes, interests and needs of people.
Social development has alternatives, different options for its deployment. At the same time, there are many ideological approaches to their analysis.
In social cognition, the role of methods and techniques for studying social processes and phenomena is increasing. Their characteristic feature is a high level of abstraction.
The main goal of social cognition is to identify patterns social development and on their basis, forecasting ways of further development of society. The social laws operating in social life, in fact, as in nature, represent a repeating connection of phenomena and processes of objective reality.
The laws of society, like the laws of nature, are objective in nature. The laws of society, first of all, differ in the degree of coverage of spheres of public life (social space) and the degree of duration of functioning. There are three main groups of laws. This the most general laws, general laws and specific (particular laws). The most general laws cover all major spheres of social life and function throughout human history (for example, the law of interaction between the economic base and superstructure). General laws function in one or more areas and over a number of historical stages (law of value). Specific or private laws manifest themselves in certain spheres of social life and operate within the framework of a historically determined stage of development of society (the law of surplus value).
Nature and society can be defined as follows: nature is matter that is not aware of its existence; society is matter developing to the realization of its existence. This part isolated from nature material world is the result of human interaction. The inextricable, natural connection of society with nature determines the unity and difference of the laws of their development.
The unity of the laws of nature and the laws of society lies in the fact that they act objectively and, given the appropriate conditions, manifest themselves with necessity; changing conditions changes the operation of both natural and social laws. The laws of nature and society are implemented regardless of whether we know about them or not, whether they are known or not. Man cannot abolish either the laws of nature or the laws of social development.
There is also a well-known difference between the laws of social development and the laws of nature. Nature is infinite in space and time. Among the laws of nature there are eternal(for example, the law of gravity), and long-term (laws of development of flora and fauna). The laws of society are not eternal: they arose with the formation of society, and will cease to operate with its disappearance.
The laws of nature are manifested in the action of spontaneous, unconscious forces; nature does not know what it is doing. Social laws are implemented through the conscious activity of people. The laws of society cannot function “by themselves”, without human participation.
The laws of social development differ from the laws of nature in their complexity. These are the laws of a higher form of motion of matter. Although the laws of lower forms of movement of matter can influence the laws of society, they do not determine the essence of social phenomena; man obeys the laws of mechanics, the laws of physics, the laws of chemistry, and the laws of biology, but they do not determine the essence of man as a social being. Man is not only a natural, but also a social being. The essence of its development is a change not in the biological species, but in its social nature, which may lag behind or may advance the course of history.
The difference between the laws of society and the laws of nature is that social laws do not have a rigid orientation. They, defining the main line of development of society (social processes), appear in the form of a trend. Social laws are a convincing illustration of how necessity manifests itself through a mass of accidents.
Knowledge of the laws of social development opens up wide possibilities for their use in social practice. Unknown social laws, as objective phenomena, act and influence the destinies of people. The deeper and more fully they are known, the freer the activities of people will be, the more significantly the possibility of using them in managing social processes in the interests of all humanity will increase.
Society -- 1) in the broad sense of the word, is the totality of all types of interaction and forms of association of people that have developed historically; 2) in a narrow sense - a historically specific type of social system, a certain form of social relations. 3) a group of people united by common moral and ethical standards (foundations) [source not specified 115 days].
In a number of species of living organisms, individual individuals do not have the necessary abilities or properties to ensure their material life (consumption of matter, accumulation of matter, reproduction). Such living organisms form communities, temporary or permanent, to ensure their material life. There are communities that actually represent a single organism: a swarm, an anthill, etc. In them, there is a division of biological functions between members of the community. Individuals of such organisms outside the community die. There are temporary communities, flocks, herds; as a rule, individuals solve this or that problem without forming strong ties. There are communities called populations. As a rule, they form in a limited area. A common property of all communities is the task of preserving a given type of living organism.
The human community is called society. It is characterized by the fact that community members occupy a certain territory and conduct joint collective productive activities. In the community there is a distribution of the jointly produced product.
Society is a society that is characterized by production and social division of labor. Society can be characterized by many characteristics: for example, by nationality: French, Russian, German; state and cultural characteristics, territorial and temporal, method of production, etc. In the history of social philosophy, the following paradigms for interpreting society can be distinguished:
Identification of society with the organism and an attempt to explain social life by biological laws. In the 20th century, the concept of organicism lost popularity;
The concept of society as a product of an arbitrary agreement between individuals (see Social Contract, Rousseau, Jean-Jacques);
The anthropological principle of considering society and man as part of nature (Spinoza, Diderot, etc.). Only a society corresponding to the true, high, unchangeable nature of man was recognized as worthy of existence. In modern conditions, the most complete justification of philosophical anthropology is given by Scheler;
The theory of social action that emerged in the 20s of the 20th century (Understanding Sociology). According to this theory, the basis of social relationships is the establishment of "meaning" (understanding) of the intentions and goals of each other's actions. The main thing in interaction between people is their awareness of common goals and objectives and that the action is adequately understood by other participants in the social relationship;
Functionalist approach (Parsons, Merton). Society is viewed as a system.
Holistic approach. Society is considered as an integral cyclic system, naturally functioning on the basis of both a linear state management mechanism using internal energy information resources, and external nonlinear coordination of a certain structure (conciliar society) with the influx of external energy.
Human cognition is subject to general laws. However, the characteristics of the object of knowledge determine its specificity. Social cognition, which is inherent in social philosophy, also has its own characteristic features. It should, of course, be borne in mind that in the strict sense of the word, all knowledge has a social, social character. However, in this context we are talking about social cognition itself, in the narrow sense of the word, when it is expressed in a system of knowledge about society at its various levels and in various aspects.
The specificity of this type of cognition lies primarily in the fact that the object here is the activity of the subjects of cognition themselves. That is, people themselves are both subjects of knowledge and real actors. In addition, the object of cognition also becomes the interaction between the object and the subject of cognition. In other words, in contrast to the natural sciences, technical and other sciences, in the very object of social cognition, its subject is initially present.
Further, society and man, on the one hand, act as part of nature. On the other hand, these are the creations of both society itself and man himself, the materialized results of their activities. In society there are both social and individual forces, both material and ideal, objective and subjective factors; in it both feelings, passions, and reason matter; both conscious and unconscious, rational and irrational aspects of human life. Within society itself, its various structures and elements strive to satisfy their own needs, interests and goals. This complexity of social life, its diversity and different qualities determine the complexity and difficulty of social cognition and its specificity in relation to other types of cognition.
To the difficulties of social cognition explained by objective reasons, that is, reasons that have grounds in the specifics of the object, are added the difficulties associated with the subject of cognition. Such a subject is ultimately the person himself, although involved in public relations and scientific communities, but having his own individual experience and intelligence, interests and values, needs and passions, etc. Thus, when characterizing social cognition, one should also keep in mind its personal factor.
Finally, it is necessary to note the socio-historical conditionality of social cognition, including the level of development of the material and spiritual life of society, its social structure and the interests prevailing in it.
The specific combination of all these factors and aspects of the specificity of social cognition determines the diversity of points of view and theories that explain the development and functioning of social life. At the same time, this specificity largely determines the nature and characteristics of various aspects of social cognition: ontological, epistemological and value (axiological).
1. The ontological (from the Greek on (ontos) - existing) side of social cognition concerns the explanation of the existence of society, the patterns and trends of its functioning and development. At the same time, it also affects such a subject of social life as a person, to the extent that he is included in the system of social relations. In the aspect under consideration, the above-mentioned complexity of social life, as well as its dynamism, combined with the personal element of social cognition, are the objective basis for the diversity of points of view on the issue of the essence of people’s social existence.2. The epistemological (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge) side of social cognition is associated with the characteristics of this cognition itself, primarily with the question of whether it is capable of formulating its own laws and categories and whether it has them at all. In other words, we are talking about whether social cognition can lay claim to truth and have the status of science? The answer to this question largely depends on the scientist’s position on the ontological problem of social cognition, that is, on whether the objective existence of society and the presence of objective laws in it are recognized. As in cognition in general, in social cognition ontology largely determines epistemology.3. In addition to the ontological and epistemological sides of social cognition, there is also a value - axiological side of it (from the Greek axios - valuable), which plays an important role in understanding its specifics, since any cognition, and especially social, is associated with certain value patterns and biases and the interests of various cognitive subjects. The value approach manifests itself from the very beginning of cognition - from the choice of the object of research. This choice is made by a specific subject with his life and cognitive experience, individual goals and objectives. In addition, value prerequisites and priorities largely determine not only the choice of the object of cognition, but also its forms and methods, as well as the specifics of interpretation of the results of social cognition.
How the researcher sees an object, what he comprehends in it and how he evaluates it follows from the value prerequisites of cognition. The difference in value positions determines the difference in the results and conclusions of knowledge.
Social cognition is one of the forms of cognitive activity - knowledge of society, i.e. social processes and phenomena. Any knowledge is social, since it arises and functions in society and is determined by socio-cultural reasons. Depending on the basis (criterion) within social cognition, knowledge is distinguished: socio-philosophical, economic, historical, sociological, etc.
Indeed, as the French thinker O. Comte noted in the first half of the 19th century, society is the most complex of the objects of knowledge. For him, sociology is the most complex science. It turns out that in the field of social development it is much more difficult to detect patterns than in the natural world.
Peculiarities:
1) In social cognition we are dealing not only with the study of material, but also ideal relationships.
2) In social cognition, society acts both as an object and as a subject of cognition: people create their own history, they also know and study it. There appears, as it were, an identity of object and subject. The subject of cognition represents different interests and goals. The subject of social cognition is a person who purposefully reflects in his consciousness the objectively existing reality of social existence.
3) Socio-historical conditionality of social cognition, including the levels of development of the material and spiritual life of society, its social structure and the interests prevailing in it. Social cognition is almost always value-based. It refers to acquired knowledge because it affects the interests and needs of people who are guided by different attitudes and value orientations in organizing and carrying out their actions.
4) The variety of different situations in people’s social life. This is why social cognition is largely probabilistic knowledge, where, as a rule, there is no place for rigid and unconditional statements.
All these features of social cognition indicate that the conclusions obtained in the process of social cognition can be both scientific and non-scientific in nature. The complexities of social cognition often lead to attempts to transfer the natural science approach to social cognition. This is due, first of all, to the growing authority of physics, cybernetics, biology, etc. So, in the 19th century. G. Spencer transferred the laws of evolution to the field of social cognition. The importance of natural science methodology for social cognition cannot be underestimated or completely denied. Social philosophy cannot ignore the data of psychology and biology.
In social science there are the following main components : knowledge and means of obtaining it . First component– social knowledge – includes knowledge about knowledge (methodological knowledge) and knowledge about the subject. Second component– these are both individual methods and social research.
This is a description and generalization of facts (empirical, theoretical, logical analyzes identifying the laws and causes of the phenomena under study), the construction of idealized models (“ideal types” according to M. Weber), adapted to the facts, explanation and prediction of phenomena, etc. The unity of all forms and types of knowledge presupposes certain internal differences between them, expressed in the specifics of each of them.
Methods:
Methods in social science are means of obtaining and systematizing scientific knowledge about social reality. They include the principles of organizing cognitive (research) activities; regulations or rules; a set of techniques and methods of action; order, pattern, or plan of action.
Used in social cognition general scientific methods(analysis, synthesis, deduction, induction, analogy) and private scientific methods(e.g. survey, sociological research). A technique is the implementation of a method as a whole, and, consequently, its procedure.
The following aspects can be distinguished in social cognition: ontological, epistemological and value (axiological).
Ontological side social cognition concerns the explanation of the existence of society, patterns and trends of functioning and development. It also affects such a subject of social life as a person. Especially in the aspect where it is included in the system of social relations.
The question of the essence of human existence has been considered in the history of philosophy from various points of view. Various authors took as the basis for the existence of society and human activity such factors as the idea of justice (Plato), divine providence (Aurelius Augustine), absolute reason (G. Hegel), economic factor (K. Marx), the struggle of the “instinct of life” and “ death instinct" (Eros and Thanatos) (S. Freud), "social character" (E. Fromm), geographical environment (C. Montesquieu, P. Chaadaev), etc.
Epistemological the side of social cognition is connected with the characteristics of this cognition itself, first of all with the question of whether it is capable of formulating its own laws and categories, does it have them at all? In other words, can social cognition lay claim to truth and have the status of science?
The answer to this question depends on the scientist’s position on the ontological problem of social cognition, on whether he recognizes the objective existence of society and the presence of objective laws in it. As in cognition in general, and in social cognition, ontology largely determines epistemology.
The epistemological side of social cognition includes the solution of the following problems: - how cognition of social phenomena is carried out; - what are the possibilities of their knowledge and what are the boundaries of knowledge; - what is the role of social practice in social cognition and what is the significance in this personal experience cognizing subject; - what is the role of various kinds of sociological research and social experiments.
Axiological the side of cognition plays an important role, since social cognition, like no other, is associated with certain value patterns, preferences and interests of subjects. The value approach is already manifested in the choice of object of study. The separation of scientific theory and axiology, truth and value has led to the fact that the problem of truth, associated with the question “why,” turned out to be separated from the problem of values, associated with the question “why,” “for what purpose.” The consequence of this was the absolute opposition between natural science and humanities knowledge. It should be recognized that in social cognition value orientations operate more complexly than in natural scientific cognition.
In its value-based way of analyzing reality philosophical thought strives to build a system of ideal intentions (preferences, attitudes) to prescribe the proper development of society. Using various socially significant assessments: true and false, fair and unfair, good and evil, beautiful and ugly, humane and inhumane, rational and irrational, etc., philosophy tries to put forward and justify certain ideals, value systems, goals and objectives of social development, build the meaning of people's activities.
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Questions - tests
1)“Virtue is knowledge. Bad deeds are born of ignorance,” he believed:
a) Plato
b) Seneca
c) Epicurus
d) Socrates
2)One of the central medieval philosophy The problem was the problem of the relationship between faith and:
a) mind
b) feelings
c) intuition
3)Basic concepts in Kant's philosophy: categorical imperative and pure mind.
4)Philosopher, in whose ontology the key roles are played by the concepts of “will to live” and “will to power”:
a) Popper,
b) Nietzsche,
5) Neopositivism is a philosophy in the 20th century, connecting the basic principles of positivist philosophy with the use of mathematical logic.
a) gnosticism-agnosticism
b) cause and effect
c) determinism-indeterminism
d) necessity and chance
7) The highest form of organization of scientific knowledge is:
a) guess
b) scientific theory
c) hypothesis
d) scientific program
8) Forms of the rational stage of cognition:
a) judgment
b) concept
c) presentation
d) inference
9) Basic coordinates life world person(choose wrong)
a) the meaning of life
b) death
c) profession
d) happiness
10) Philosophical teaching about morality:
b) etiquette