signs of idealism. What is the difference between an idealist philosopher and a materialist philosopher

Idealism is the main philosophical trend that affirms the primacy of consciousness, thinking, spiritual, ideal and secondary, the dependence of matter, nature, the world.

All idealist philosophers recognize that being depends on consciousness, depends on consciousness, but they explain in different ways how consciousness gives rise to being. Idealism has two main forms:

• - objective idealism, considering consciousness as an extra-natural, superhuman, objective spiritual principle that creates the whole world, nature and man.
• - subjective idealism, understanding being not as existing outside of human consciousness objective reality but only as a product of the activity of the human spirit, the subject.

The French materialist D. Diderot in 1749 called idealism "the most absurd of all systems." But the historical, epistemological and social origins of idealism are very deep, and besides, this direction was considered the main one by many brilliant philosophers.

The historical roots of idealism are the anthropomorphism inherent in the thinking of primitive people, the humanization and animation of the entire surrounding world. Natural forces were considered in the image and likeness of human actions, conditioned by consciousness and will. In this idealism, especially objective idealism, is closely connected with religion.

The epistemological source of idealism is the ability of human thinking to theoretical knowledge. In its very process, a separation of thought from reality, its withdrawal into the sphere of imagination is possible. The formation of general concepts (man, goodness, truth, consciousness) and an increasing degree of abstraction are necessary in the process of theoretical thinking. Separating these concepts from material objects and operating them as independent entities leads to idealism. The epistemological roots of this trend go far back in history. When society began to stratify into classes, mental labor became a distinctive feature, a privilege of the ruling population. Under these conditions, they monopolize mental labor, direct politics, and material production activity becomes the lot of the working masses. This situation has created the illusion that ideas are the main determining force, and ordinary material labor is something lower, secondary, dependent on consciousness.

IN Ancient Greece Pythagoras (580-500 BC) considered numbers to be independent essences of things, and the essence of the Universe was the harmony of numbers. The founder of the philosophical system of objective idealism is Plato (427-347 BC). He argued that in addition to the world of things, there is also a world of ideas that a person can see only with the "eyes of reason." In this world, there are ideas of a ball, an amphora, a person, and specific copper balls, clay amphoras, living people are only material embodiments of ideas, their imperfect shadows. What everyone takes for the real world is in fact only a shadow of the world of ideas hidden from humanity, spiritual world. For Plato, the world of ideas was a divine realm in which, before the birth of a person, his immortal soul lives. Getting to the earth and temporarily being in a mortal body, the soul remembers the world of ideas, this is precisely the true process of knowledge. Plato's idealism was criticized by his brilliant student Aristotle (384-322 BC): "Plato is my friend, but truth is dearer!" Aristotle believed that matter is eternal, uncreated and indestructible.

The ideas of objective idealism in modern times were developed by the German philosopher G. Leibniz (1646-1716). He believed that the world consists of the smallest elements, monads, active and independent, capable of perception and consciousness. The monad in this system is an individual world, a mirror of the universe and the infinite Universe. God-established harmony gives the monads unity and coherence. The lowest of them have only vague ideas about the surrounding world (mountains, water, plants), the consciousness of animals reaches the level of sensation, and in humans - the mind.

Objective idealism reached its highest degree of development in the philosophy of G. W. F. Hegel (1770-1831). Hegel considered the World Mind, which he called the Absolute Idea or Absolute Spirit, to be the basis of everything that exists. The Absolute Idea is constantly developing, generating a system of concepts. In the process of its development, it acquires a material shell, acting first in the form of mechanical phenomena, then chemical compounds, and eventually gives rise to life and man. All nature is the "Kingdom of petrified concepts". With the advent of man, the Absolute Idea breaks through the material shell and begins to exist in its own form - consciousness, thinking. With the development of human consciousness, the Idea is more and more freed from matter, knowing itself and returning to itself. Hegel's idealism is imbued with the idea of ​​development, of dialectics. Objective idealism tears away general concepts, laws from specific individual things and phenomena, absolutizing ideas, and explaining them as the primordial essence of the world.

Subjective idealism proves the dependence of being on human consciousness, identifying observed phenomena and objects with sensations and perceptions. "The only reality is the consciousness of the subject himself, and the world is only a projection of this consciousness outside."

The classic version of subjective idealism is the teaching of the English bishop George Berkeley (1685-1753). In his opinion, all things are really just stable combinations of sensations. Consider his theory on the example of an apple. The complex of feelings displayed by consciousness: red, hard, juicy, sweet. But the development of such an idea would lead to the conclusion that there is nothing at all in the world except sensations. This extreme is called solipsism (lat. solus - "one", lat. ipse - "self"). Trying to avoid solipsism, Berkeley argued that sensations do not arise in us arbitrarily, but are caused by the influence of God on the human soul. Thus, each time the deepening and upholding of subjective idealism sooner or later leads to a transition to religion and objective idealism.

IN modern philosophy the existentialists S. Kierkegaard (1813-1855), L. Shestov (1866-1938), N. Berdyaev (1874-1848), M. Heidegger (1889-1976), G. Marcel (1889-1973) are close to subjective-idealistic views ), J.P. Sartre (1905-1980), A. Camus (1913-1960). The starting point for existentialists is not the essence (essentia) of the objective world, but the existence (exsistentia) of an individual person with his feelings, experiences. Therefore, the task of philosophy is not the study of being as the essence of the world, but the discovery of the meaning of human existence, true existence. Only through understanding the meaning of his existence can a person judge what is outside him, in the world around him. scientific knowledge things, writes K. Jaspers, cannot answer the question about the meaning of life and the meaning of science itself. For existentialists, the true form philosophical knowledge is intuition, a direct vision of the meaning of the reality under consideration, which is the subjective experience of the individual. They distinguish between the true and non-genuine existence of a person in the world: true - free, where a person will make decisions and be responsible for his actions; inauthentic - immersion of the individual in everyday life. Subjective idealism is closely related to another philosophical trend of the twentieth century - personalism (Latin persona - "personality"). Personalists consider a person in two aspects: spiritual - a person-personality and material - a person-individual. A person is a person, because he has a free and reasonable spiritual fundamental principle, freedom of choice and independence from the world. The individual man is a particle of matter, that is, nature and society, obeys their laws. But if the individual is subordinate to society, the state, then the individual is subordinate only to God. This, according to personalists, proves the necessity of a religion that connects a person with a supreme, divine Personality and reveals the secrets of being.

Often idealism is difficult to reconcile with real life, but it cannot be regarded as a collection of sheer delusions. In idealistic teachings there are many ideas that play a large role in the development of human culture.

Idealism in philosophy is a trend that claims that our spirit, subconscious and consciousness, thoughts, dreams and everything spiritual are primary. The material aspect of our world is considered something derivative. In other words, the spirit gives rise to matter, and without thought there can be no object.

General concepts

Based on this, many skeptics believe that idealism in philosophy is acceptance. They give examples where convinced idealists plunge into the world of their dreams, regardless of whether they concern a specific person or the whole world. We will now consider the two main varieties of idealism and compare them. It is also worth noting that both of these concepts, despite the fact that they are often characterized by opposing dogmas, are the exact opposite of realism.

in philosophy

The objective current in philosophical science appeared in ancient times. In those years, people did not yet share their teachings as such, so there was no such name. The father of objective idealism is considered to be Plato, who put the whole world around people into the framework of myth and divine stories. One of his statements has passed through the centuries and is still a kind of slogan of all idealists. It lies in disinterestedness, in the fact that an idealist is a person who strives for higher harmony, for higher ideals, despite minor adversities and problems. In antiquity, a similar trend was also supported by Proclus and Plotinus.

This philosophical science reaches its zenith during the Middle Ages. In these dark ages, idealism in philosophy is a church philosophy that explains any phenomenon, any thing, and even the very fact of human existence as an act of the Lord. The objective idealists of the Middle Ages believed that the world as we see it was built by God in six days. They completely denied evolution and any other gradations of man and nature that could lead to development.

The idealists separated from the church. In their teachings, they tried to convey to people the nature of one spiritual principle. As a rule, objective idealists preached the idea of ​​universal peace and understanding, the realization that we are all one, which can achieve the highest harmony in the universe. It was on the basis of such semi-utopian judgments that idealism was built in philosophy. This trend was represented by such personalities as G. W. Leibniz, F. W. Schelling.

Subjective idealism in philosophy

This trend was formed around the 17th century, in those years when there was even the slightest opportunity to become a free person, independent of the state and the church. The essence of subjectivism in idealism lies in the fact that a person builds his world through thoughts and desires. Everything that we see, feel, is only our world. The other individual builds it in his own way, respectively, sees and perceives it differently. Such "isolated" idealism in philosophy is a kind of visualization as a model of reality. Representatives are I. G. Fichte, J. Berkeley, and also D. Huma.

IDEALISM - the opposite materialism a philosophical direction that recognizes the primacy of spirit, consciousness and considers matter, nature as something secondary, derivative.

This incorrect, perverted idea of ​​the world has its epistemological (epistemological) and class (social) roots. The epistemological roots of idealism lie in absolutization, exaggeration of individual moments of knowledge. The possibility of such an exaggeration is due to the complexity and inconsistency of the cognitive process. In order to penetrate into the depths of things, a person creates abstractions, concepts, with the help of which the properties of objects are thought in general view apart from the objects themselves. Therefore, it is not difficult to turn these general concepts into something absolutely independent, to make them the basis of natural phenomena. Another epistemological root of idealism is a false interpretation of the fact that objects and phenomena of the objective world are reflected in consciousness in a subjective, ideal form. Reflected in a person's head, they become part of his inner world. Exaggerating the moment of the subjectivity of our knowledge and ignoring the fact that it is a reflection of reality, I. identifies external world With inner world man, and material objects and phenomena - with his sensations, experiences.

The social roots of idealism are the separation of spiritual (mental) labor from material (physical) (Mental and physical labor), class division of society. Mental labor has become the privilege of the ruling classes, in connection with which the idea arose of its defining role in society. The class foundations of idealism have changed in the course of history, it has been the backbone of a wide variety of political programs, but, as a rule, idealism is the worldview of the conservative classes. The spiritual principle in I. is interpreted in different ways: it can be an impersonal spirit (Hegel), "world will" (Schopenhauer), personal consciousness (personalism), subjective experience (empirio-criticism) and others. Depending on how idealism understands the spiritual principle, it is divided into two main forms - subjective and objective idealism. Objective idealism sees the basis of everything that exists in thinking, torn off from man and turned into an independent entity. IN ancient philosophy the system of objective idealism was developed by Plato, who believed that all finite things that we see are generated by the world of eternal, unchanging ideas.

IN medieval philosophy objective-idealist systems dominated: Thomism, realism, and others. classical philosophy, in the system of Schelling and especially Hegel, who proclaimed the absolute identity of being and thinking. In the 20th century the line of objective I. was continued in neo-Hegelianism and neo-Thomism (Thomism and Neo-Thomism).

Objectiveidealism exaggerates the validity scientific truths, the independence of cultural values ​​from individual experience, separating ethical, aesthetic and cognitive values ​​from real life of people.

Subjectiveidealism takes as a fundamental principle the sensing, feeling consciousness of an individual, cut off from society. Subjective idealism reached its greatest flowering in bourgeois philosophy. Its founder is an English philosopher of the 18th century. Berkeley, who put forward the position that things exist only insofar as they are perceived. In German classical philosophy, Kant, who had both materialistic moments (“Thing in itself”), and Fichte, who dissolved the objective world (non-I) in consciousness (I), stood on the positions of subjective I.. In modern bourgeois philosophy, subjective idealism is the dominant trend. He is represented pragmatism, neopositivism, existentialism etc.

If one consistently follows the principles of subjective idealism, then one can come to a denial of the existence not only of the external world, but also of other people, i.e., to solipsism. Therefore, subjective idealism is eclectic; it combines with elements of either objective idealism (Berkeley, Fichte) or materialism (Kant and others). In accordance with whether the spiritual principle is understood as something single or as a multitude, I. takes the form of monistic I. (Schelling, Hegel) or pluralistic I. (Leibniz). Depending on the method philosophers use when creating their picture of the world, I. is divided into metaphysical and dialectical. Dialectical dialectic is represented in the systems of Kant, Fichte, and Schelling; Hegel developed the dialectic especially deeply, to the extent that the false idealistic basis allowed. Metaphysical I. inherent neo-Thomism, pragmatism, positivism and other directions. Depending on what moments in the process of cognition are absolutized, one can single out empirical-sensualistic, rationalistic and irrationalistic idealism.

Empirico-sensualistic idealism (Berkeley, Mach, etc.) leading role sensory elements of cognition, empirical knowledge, rationalistic I. (Descartes, Kant, Hegel, etc.) - logical elements of cognition, thinking. Modern forms of intellect (Heidegger, Jaspers, and others) are characterized mainly by irrationalism; they deny the limitless possibilities of the human mind and oppose intuition to it. They highlight not isolated moments human knowledge(sensation, perception), but such deep layers of human consciousness, spiritual life of a person as emotions, experiences (fear, care, etc.). Idealism is characterized by a close connection with religion, a struggle against materialism.

IDEALISM (from the Greek idea - concept, representation) is a philosophical direction opposite to materialism in solving the main question of philosophy - the question of the relation of consciousness (thinking) to being (matter). Idealism, contrary to science, recognizes consciousness and spirit as primary and considers matter and nature to be secondary, derivative. In this respect, idealism coincides with religious worldview, from the point of view of which nature, matter are generated by some supernatural, spiritual principle (god).

Absolute Idealism (SZF.ES, 2009)

ABSOLUTE IDEALISM - the course of Anglo-American philosophy of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The concept of absolute reality, or the absolute, was formed in classical it. philosophy. According to F.V.Y. Schelling And G.W.F. Hegel, the attribute of the absolute is the harmonious reconciliation of opposites. However, in their systems, the concept of the absolute contained an implicit contradiction, which was not long in coming to light during further evolution. philosophical ideas. This is a contradiction between the principle of historicism, according to which the "spirit" becomes absolute in the process of historical development, and the very concept of the absolute as the timeless fullness of being and perfection. The adherents of absolute idealism abandoned historicism in the name of a coherent conception of the absolute. At the same time, they did not have unanimity in their understanding of absolute reality. The differences between them can be reduced to three positions. The first is represented by British neo-Hegelians ( ) F.G. Bradley and B. Bosanquet, the second - a supporter of personalism J. E. McTaggart, the third - J. Royce ...

Transcendental idealism

TRANSCENDENTAL IDEALISM. Based on Kant's explanations regarding the concept of "transcendental", Husserl gave it a broader and more radical meaning. In the book “The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology” he wrote: “The word “transcendental philosophy” since the time of Kant has become widespread as a general designation for universal philosophizing, which focuses on its Kantian type.

Transcendental idealism

TRANSCENDENTAL IDEALISM (transzendentaler Idealismus) - philosophy I. Kant, epistemologically substantiating his system of metaphysics, which he opposed to all other metaphysical systems (see Transcendental). According to Kant, “transcendental philosophy must first resolve the question of the possibility of metaphysics and, therefore, must precede it” (Prolegomena to any future metaphysics that can appear as a science. Works in 6 vols., vol. 4, part 1, M. , 1965, p. 54).

materialism and idealism

MATERIALISM AND IDEALISM (fr. materialisme; idealisme) - from the point of view of materialism, there are two main philosophical directions. the struggle between which affects the development of psychological thought throughout its history. Materialism proceeds from the principle of primacy material existence, the secondary nature of the spiritual, mental, which is considered as arbitrary from the outside world, independent of the subject and his consciousness.

Absolute Idealism (NFE, 2010)

ABSOLUTE IDEALISM is a trend in British philosophy that arose in the second half of the 19th century, sometimes also called, although not quite accurately, British neo-Hegelianism. Absolute idealism also had supporters in American philosophy. The immediate forerunners of absolute idealism were the English romantics (primarily S. T. Coleridge), as well as T. Carlyle, who stimulated among professional philosophers an interest in speculative objective idealistic metaphysics. German idealism (and not only in the Hegelian version) first of all becomes popular in Scotland, where in the middle of the 19th century. Positivism and utilitarianism were not as influential as in England. In North America, the spread of German idealism was first associated with the activities of a group of transcendentalists, and then was continued by the St. Louis Philosophical Society, headed by W. Harris ...

Idealism (Gritsanov)

IDEALISM (fr. idealisme from rp. idea - idea) is a term introduced in the 18th century. for integral notation philosophical concepts, focused in the interpretation of the world order and world knowledge on the semantic and axiological dominance of the spiritual. The first use of the term I. - in 1702 by Leibniz in assessing the philosophy of Plato (in comparison with the philosophy of Epicurus as materialism). Distribution gets at the end of the 18th century. after the explicit statement within the framework of French materialism of the so-called "basic question of philosophy" as the question of the relationship between being and consciousness.

Idealism (Kirilenko, Shevtsov)

IDEALISM (from the Greek idea - idea) is one of the main trends in philosophy, whose supporters recognize the original, primary, substance as spirit, idea, consciousness. The term I. was introduced German philosopher Leibniz at the beginning of the 19th century. For Leibniz, Plato was the model and founder of the idealistic trend in philosophy. Pythagoreanism is considered the forerunner of Platonic I.. The ideal principle was called differently: it was called the idea, consciousness, God, the Absolute, the world will, the absolute idea, the One, the Good.

IDEALISM(from Greek ιδέα - idea) - a category of philosophical discourse that characterizes a worldview that either identifies the world as a whole with the content of the consciousness of the cognizing subject (subjective idealism), or asserts the existence of an ideal, spiritual principle outside and independently of human consciousness (objective idealism), and considers the external world to be a manifestation of spiritual being, universal consciousness, the absolute. Consistent objective idealism sees in this beginning what is primary in relation to the world and things. The term “Idealism” was introduced by G.V. Leibniz (Collections in 4 volumes, vol. 1. M., 1982, p. 332).

Objective idealism coincides with spiritualism and is represented in such forms of philosophy as Platonism, panlogism, monadology, voluntarism. Subjective idealism is associated with the development of the theory of knowledge and is presented in such forms as D. Berkeley's empiricism, I. Kant's critical idealism, for which experience is conditioned by the forms of pure consciousness, and positivist idealism.

Objective idealism originated in myths and religion, but received a reflective form in philosophy. At the first stages, matter was understood not as a product of the spirit, but as a co-eternal formless and spiritless substance from which the spirit (nous, logos) creates real objects. The spirit was considered, therefore, not as the creator of the world, but only as its shaper, the demiurge. This is the idealism of Plato. His character is connected with the task that he tried to solve: to understand the nature of human knowledge and practice on the basis of monistic principles recognized today. According to the first of them, “no thing arises from non-existence, but everything from being” ( Aristotle. Metaphysics. M.–L., 1934, 1062b). Another inevitably followed from it: from what kind of “being” do such “things” arise as, on the one hand, images of real objects, and, on the other, the forms of objects created by human practice? The answer to it was: each thing does not arise from any being, but only from that which is "the same" as the thing itself (ibid.). Guided by these principles, Empedocles, for example, argued that the image of the earth itself is earth, the image of water is water, and so on. This concept was later called vulgar materialism. Aristotle objected to Empedocles: “The soul must be either these objects or their forms; but the objects themselves fall away - after all, the stone is not in the soul. ( Aristotle. About the soul. M., 1937, p. 102). Consequently, it is not the object that passes from reality into the soul, but only the “form of the object” (ibid., p. 7). But the image of the subject is perfect. Therefore, the form of an object "similar" to it is also ideal. Reflections on human practice also led to the conclusion about the ideality of the form of things: the form that a person gives to a thing is his idea, transferred to a thing and transformed in it. The original objective idealism is the projection of the characteristics of human practice onto the entire cosmos. This form of idealism must be distinguished from the developed forms of objective idealism that arose after the task of bringing matter out of consciousness had been explicitly formulated.

Having explained from a single monistic principle two opposite processes - cognition and practice, objective idealism created the basis for answering the question of whether human consciousness is capable of adequately cognizing the world? For objective idealism, the affirmative answer is almost tautological: of course, consciousness is capable of comprehending itself. And in this tautology lies his fatal weakness.

The internal logic of self-development led objective idealism to a new question: if no thing arises from non-existence, then from what kind of existence do such “things” as matter and consciousness arise? Do they have an independent origin, or does one of them give rise to the other? In the latter case, which one is primary and which one is secondary? In an explicit form, it was formulated and solved by Neoplatonism in the 3rd century. AD The real world was understood by him as the result of the emanation of the spiritual, divine primordial unity, and matter as the product of the complete extinction of this emanation. Only after this did consistent objective idealism arise, and the demiurge spirit turned into a God-spirit, which does not form the world, but creates it entirely.

Objective idealism used the theory of emanation until the 17th century. Even Leibniz interpreted the world as a product of radiations (fulgurations) of the Deity, understood as the primary Unity ( Leibniz G.W. Op. in 4 vols., vol. 1, p. 421). Hegel made a major step in the development of objective idealism. He interpreted real world as a result not of emanation, but of self-development of the absolute spirit. He considered the contradiction inherent in him to be the source of this self-development. But if the world is a product of the self-development of an idea, then from what does the idea itself arise? The threat of evil infinity was faced by Schelling and Hegel, who tried to avoid it by deriving the idea from pure being - identical nothingness. For the latter, the question "from what?" already meaningless. An alternative to both concepts is a theory that interprets the world as originally having a spiritual nature and thereby removes the question of deriving it from something else.

Initially, objective idealism (like materialism) proceeded from the existence of the world outside and independently of human consciousness as something taken for granted. Only by the 17th century. the culture of philosophical thinking has grown so much that this postulate has been questioned. It was then that subjective idealism arose - a philosophical direction, the germ of which can already be found in antiquity (Protagoras' thesis about man as the measure of all things), but which received a classical formulation only in modern times - in the philosophy of D. Berkeley. A consistent subjective idealist-solipsist recognizes only his own consciousness as existing. Despite the fact that such a view is theoretically irrefutable, it does not occur in the history of philosophy. Even D. Berkeley does not carry it out consistently, allowing, in addition to his own consciousness, the consciousness of other subjects, as well as God, which actually makes him an objective idealist. Here is the argument on which his concept is based: "It is sufficient reason for me not to believe in the existence of something if I see no reason to believe in it" ( Berkeley D. Op. M., 1978, p. 309). Here, of course, there is a mistake: the absence of grounds for recognizing the reality of matter is not a ground for denying its reality. More consistent is the position of D. Hume, who left the question theoretically open: do there exist material objects that evoke impressions in us. It was in the debates of the philosophers of modern times that the characteristic of the view began to be widely used, according to which we are given only representations as an object, as idealism. T. Reed described the views of D. Locke and D. Berkeley exactly in this way. X. Wolf called idealists those who attributed only ideal existence to bodies (Psychol, rat., § 36). I. Kant noted: “Idealism consists in the assertion that there are only thinking beings, and the rest of the things that we think to perceive in contemplation are only representations in thinking beings, representations that in fact do not correspond to any object located outside them” ( Kant I. Prolegomena. - Soch., v. 4, part I. M., 1964, p. 105). Kant distinguishes between dogmatic and critical idealism, which he calls transcendental idealism. Fichte initiated the revival of objective idealism in Germany by combining epistemological, ethical and metaphysical idealism. Representatives of absolute idealism Schelling and Hegel tried to present nature as a potency and expression of the world spirit. A. Schopenhauer saw the absolute reality in the will, E. Hartmann - in the unconscious, R.-Eiken - in the spirit, B. Croce - in the eternal, infinite mind, which is realized in the personality. New variants of idealism developed in connection with the doctrine of values, which were opposed to the empirical world as an ideal being, embodying the absolute spirit (A. Münsterberg, G. Rickert). For positivism, values ​​and ideals are fictions of theoretical and practical significance (D.S. Mill, D. Bain, T. Tan, E. Mach, F. Adler). In phenomenology, idealism is interpreted as a form of the theory of knowledge, which sees in the ideal a condition for the possibility of objective cognition, and all reality is interpreted as a sense-setting ( Husserl E. Logische Untersuchungen, Bd. 2. Halle, 1901, S. 107ff.). Phenomenology itself, emerging as a variant of transcendental idealism, gradually transformed, together with the principles of constitution and egology, into objective idealism.

Criticism of idealism in its various forms is deployed (of course, from different positions) in the works of L. Feuerbach, K. Marx, F. Engels, F. Jodl, W. Kraft, M. Schlick, P. A. Florensky and others.

However, the question of how to justify the existence of the world outside of us remains open in modern philosophy. Many ways have been developed to both solve and circumvent it. The most curious is the assertion that the same object, depending on the point of view, can be presented as existing both outside consciousness and inside it, the most common assertion is that the choice between subjective idealism and realism (which is understood as objective idealism and materialism) is like choosing between religion and atheism, i.e. determined by personal belief, not scientific evidence.

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