Ancient India Buddhism. The novelty and originality of Buddhism in the spiritual culture of ancient India
Subject. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The answer to the first question. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The answer to the second question. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Answer to the third question. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Conclusions on the topic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Evaluation and signature of the teacher, student, date of issue. k/r. . . . . 14
Plan
Difficult climatic conditions of the formation of ancient Indian culture, their influence on the religious beliefs of Hindus.
Creation of a special social organization - a complex varna-caste system.
The emergence and spread of Buddhism. Buddha's teaching about the world and man.
Answer to the first question:
The most striking features of ancient Indian culture include: extreme conservatism (for thousands of years the same houses were built, the same streets were laid out, the same written language existed, etc.); extreme religiosity, the idea of reincarnation, i.e. posthumous reincarnation. Severe climatic conditions: stifling heat, alternating with rainy seasons, riotous vegetation, the constant advance of the jungle on peasant crops, an abundance of dangerous predators and poisonous snakes gave the Hindus a feeling of humiliation before the forces of nature and their formidable gods. In the 2nd millennium BC. e. here a strict, closed class-caste system arose, according to which people are unequal not only before society, but also before the gods. The concept of rights and duties was applied not to a person in general, but to a representative of a particular caste. Such limitations of human existence and a rigid hierarchy of castes created the preconditions for a unique understanding of life in its connection with death. Correct life was perceived as a condition that after death a person could be born again into a higher caste, and for a stupid, worthless life he could be punished by being born in the form of some animal, insect or plant. Consequently, life is a reward or punishment, and death is deliverance from suffering or its increase. Such ideas gave rise to the ancient Hindus' desire for analysis and comprehension of every action. In the world, as in human life, there is nothing accidental O that it would not have been predetermined karma. Karma is a complex and very important concept in Indian culture. Karma is the sum of the actions performed by every living being and their consequences, which determine the nature of his new birth, that is, his further existence. In the worldview of people of ancient Indian culture, the leitmotif is the idea of the transience and insignificance of human life in comparison with the unearthly world. The endless cycle of things (samsara) is the world law of the cruel conditioning of a person’s posthumous fate by his moral behavior during life. It is not surprising that the main desire of a person is the desire to free himself, to break out of the shackles of eternal reincarnation, the series of life and death.
The fruit of these spiritual quests is Buddhism. Its founder, Buddha (literally, the enlightened one), was the prince of the reigning house. His real name is Siddhartha Gautama. Buddha outlined his creed in the so-called Benares Sermon. There he says that life is suffering. Birth and aging, illness and death, separation from a loved one and union with an unloved one, an unachieved goal and an unsatisfied desire are suffering. It comes from the thirst for existence, pleasure, creation, power, eternal life, etc. To destroy this insatiable thirst, to renounce desires, to renounce earthly vanity—this is the path to the destruction of suffering. It is behind this path that lies complete liberation - nirvana. Nirvana (literally - fading, fading) is an internal state of a person where all feelings and attachments fade away, and with them the entire world that opens to a person.
Suffering people could not help but be impressed by the teaching that our life is suffering and that all suffering stems from passions. The desire to moderate one’s passions, to be kind and benevolent - this opened the path to nirvana for everyone. This is the reason for the initial popularity of Buddhism. The teachings of the Buddha won the hearts of the people of India, China, Tibet, Japan, Thailand, Nepal, Ceylon, Vietnam, Mongolia, and Cambodia.
But in India itself, Buddhism was eventually supplanted Hinduism, which can be seen as the result of a synthesis of Buddhism and Brahmanism. An important reason for this was that Buddhism attached particular importance to the principle of non-violence, as a result, in the eyes of society, farming, which is often associated with the slaughter of animals, began to be considered low, and farmers themselves occupied a lower rung of the social ladder. Therefore, the rural community, which traditionally played an important social role in Indian society, turned away from Buddhism towards Hinduism, retaining many of the religious and moral principles of the Buddha.
All the values of Hindu-Buddhist culture are based on the idea of the Absolute Spirit, the outer expression of which is the earthly world. As a result, order is maintained in the universe, a natural connection of phenomena and a change of events prevails. Within the framework of universal law, a person is free, but he faces the eternity of life and the transmigration of souls. Karma is the guardian of both the transmigration of souls and causality, the natural reward of a person for his previous deeds. Accident and causeless evil are excluded in Hindu-Buddhist culture. To each his own.
Particular attention to the inner world of man predetermined the development of Indian literature, which is characterized by a variety of genres, scale and deep poetry. This also ensured a high level of scientific, primarily mathematical, knowledge of Indians.
Answer to the second question:
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Community-caste system
A system dating back to ancient Indian varnas and sanctified by Hinduism caste has been the basis of the social structure of India since ancient times. Word "varna" corresponds to the concepts of “type”, “category”, “color”. Since ancient times in India it has been used to distinguish and contrast the main social strata of society with each other. The legends recorded in the Rig Veda proceed from the fact that the division of society into layers opposing each other has been eternal, and that varna arose from the mouth of the first man Purusha Brahmin priests
from his hands - varna Kshatriyas
, from the thighs - the varna of simple farmers and cattle breeders, i.e. ordinary community members Vaishya.
But from the feet of Purusha appeared the fourth and lowest varna of the poor and disadvantaged, varna sudra
The three highest varnas, genetically related to the Indo-Aryans, were considered honorable, especially the first two of them. Representatives of all these Aryan varnas were called “twice-born”, because the rite of second birth was performed in relation to them. The rite of second birth gave the right to learn the profession and occupation of their ancestors, after which everyone could become a householder, that is, the father of his family. The fourth varna of the Shudras arose and was formed later than the three Aryans, so that it included all those who did not belong to the first three by birth. The varna of the sudras was, at least in the beginning, the varna of the inferior. Shudra could not claim a high social position, sometimes even an independent household; he did not have the right to study the Vedas and participate in rituals and religious functions on an equal basis with representatives of other varnas. The lot of a craftsman or servant, engaging in hard and despised types of labor - that was his lot.
Over time, some changes occurred in the position of the varnas, the essence of which was a decrease in the status of the third and a slight increase in the status of the fourth of them. The hereditary status of the brahmans was much more rigid: it was very difficult to lose it, even when the brahman ceased to be a priest and was engaged in other, much more worldly affairs, but it was even more difficult, almost impossible to gain again. The proportion of outcaste outcasts, untouchables (harijans, as they were called later), who performed the most difficult and dirty work, increased greatly. It can be assumed that by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the two higher varnas were already quite clearly opposed to the two lower ones.
The system of four varnas that emerged in this way became a very stable basis for dividing Indian society into unshakable categories-estates. A person is born in his varna and belongs to it forever, remains in it. In his varna, he takes a wife, his descendants remain in his varna forever, continuing his work. Birth in a particular varna is the result of a person’s behavior in his past births. The religious consecration of the varna system proved to be very effective. Over time, this system not only did not disintegrate, but, on the contrary, became tougher, stronger, and more branched. To be outside the system meant practically to be outside society, in a certain sense outside the law, that is, in the position of a slave.
The system of many hundreds and even thousands of castes that replaced the four ancient varnas became much more convenient in the new conditions. Caste(jati, i.e. clan) is a closed endogamous group of people, usually hereditarily employed in a certain field of activity. Those who stood outside the existing castes or were born from a mixed marriage were, for the time being, a kind of candidate for inclusion in the caste system. Tribes, sects, and groups of people with similar occupations could and did become castes. A special group included those who were engaged in unclean professions. They either belonged to the lowest castes, or stood outside the castes altogether and were considered untouchables, those whose touch could defile members of other castes, especially Brahmins. The fundamental difference between the new castes and the old varnas was that the castes were corporations, that is, they had a clear internal organization. The castes included a much smaller number of members compared to the previous varnas. The caste strictly guarded the interests of its members. But the main principle during the transformation of varnas into castes remained unchanged: the rule formulated by ancient Brahmanism and strictly guarded by Hinduism stated that everyone belongs to his caste by birth and must remain in it all his life. And not only to stay. But also choose a wife from your caste, raise children in the spirit of caste norms and customs. No matter what he becomes, no matter how rich he becomes or, on the contrary, falls, a high-caste Brahman will always remain a Brahman, and an untouchable Chandala will always remain untouchable.
Answer to the third question:
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Buddhism originated in the northeastern part of India (the territory of the modern state of Bihar), where those ancient states (Magadha, Koshala, Vaishali) where Buddha preached were located and where Buddhism received significant distribution from the very beginning of its existence. It is usually believed that here, on the one hand, the position of the Vedic religion and the associated varna (class) system, which ensured the privileged position of the Brahmanical (priestly) varna, were weaker than in other parts of India (that is, the northeast of India was, as it were, the “weak link” of Brahmanism), and on the other hand, it was here that the rapid process of state building took place, which presupposed the rise of another “noble” class - the varna kshatriyas (warriors and secular rulers - kings). Namely, Buddhism arose as a teaching in opposition to Brahmanism, based primarily on the secular power of kings. It is important to note here that, again, Buddhism contributed to the creation of powerful state formations in India like the empire of Ashoka. Much later, already in the 5th century. n. e. The great Buddhist teacher Vasubandhu, setting out the sociogenic myth in his “Receptacle of Abhidharma” (Abhidharmakosha), says almost nothing about the brahmanas, but describes in great detail the origin of royal power.
Thus, in India, Buddhism was a “royal religion,” which did not prevent it from simultaneously being a form of ancient Indian free-thinking, since the bearer of religious and generally ideological orthodoxy and orthopraxy in India was the priestly class of Brahmins. Mid-1st millennium BC. e. was in India a time of crisis for the ancient Vedic religion, the guardians and zealots of which were the Brahmans. And it is not surprising that the “weak link” of Brahmanism - the state of northeast India - became the support of religious movements, to which Buddhism belonged. And the emergence of these alternative teachings was closely connected with the disappointment of a part of ancient Indian society in the Vedic religion with its ritualism and formal piety, as well as with certain contradictions and conflicts between the brahmanas (priesthood) and the kshatriyas (who embodied the beginnings of the secular power of the ancient Indian kings).
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Life of Buddha
According to tradition, the historical Buddha Gautama Siddhartha was born into the Shakya clan of the Kshatriya caste in the country of Magadha (546-324 BC), in the Lumbini region in the south of modern Nepal. He was also called Shakyamuni - a sage belonging to the Shakya clan.
After living in luxury in the palace of his father, King Kapilavastu (whose kingdom later became part of the state of Magatha), Siddhartha accidentally encountered a cruel reality and concluded that real life is associated with suffering and grief. He abandoned life in the palace and began to lead an ascetic life with the forest hermits. Later, he came to the conclusion that asceticism was wrong and that an intermediate path should be found between self-indulgence and self-restraint.
While meditating under the Bodhi tree, he decided to find the Truth at all costs, and at the age of 35 he achieved Enlightenment. After this, he began to be called Buddha Gautama, or simply Buddha, which means “awakened one.”
For the remaining 45 years of his life, he traveled throughout Central India in the Ganges Valley, teaching his followers and students.
Subsequently, Buddha's followers over the next 400 years formed many different teachings - the school of early Buddhism (Nikaya), from which the Theravada teachings and numerous branches of the Mahayana were preserved.
^ Doctrine of the soul.
According to the tradition originating in the Abhidhamma literature, what is generally considered to be a person consists of:
A) “pure consciousness” (citta or vijnana)
B) mental phenomena in abstraction from consciousness (chaitta)
C) “sensual” in abstraction from consciousness (rupa)
D) forces that intertwine and form the previous categories into
Specific combinations, configurations (sanskara, chetana)
Buddhist texts indicate that Buddha more than once said that there is no soul. It does not exist as some kind of independent spiritual entity that temporarily inhabits the material body of a person and leaves it after death, so that, according to the law of transmigration of souls, it again finds another material prison.
However, Buddhism did not and does not deny individual “consciousness”, which “carries within itself” the entire spiritual world of a person, is transformed in the process of personal rebirth and should strive to calm down in nirvana.
According to the doctrine of drachmas, the "stream of conscious life" of the individual is ultimately the product of the "world soul", an unknowable super-being.
^ Attitude to earthly life.
Some researchers do not agree with this: “What has faded and gone out in nirvana? The thirst for life, the passionate desire for existence and pleasure have faded; delusions and seductions and their sensations and desires have faded; the flickering light of the base self, the transitory individuality has gone out.”
Morality.
Unlike the monks, the laity were given a simple code of ethics, the Pancha Shila (Five Precepts), which boiled down to the following:
1.Refrain from killing.
2.Refrain from stealing.
3. Refrain from fornication.
4. Refrain from lying.
5. Refrain from stimulating drinks.
In addition to these commandments, the “upasakas” had to maintain loyalty to the Buddha, his teaching and order.
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Buddha's Teachings
Like other religions, Buddhism promises people deliverance from the most painful aspects of human existence - suffering, adversity, passions, fear of death. However, not recognizing the immortality of the soul, not considering it something eternal and unchanging, Buddhism does not see the point in striving for eternal life in heaven, since eternal life from the point of view of Buddhism is just an endless series of reincarnations, a change of bodily shells. In Buddhism, the term “samsara” is adopted to denote it.
Buddhism teaches that the essence of man is unchangeable; under the influence of his actions, only a person’s existence and perception of the world changes. By doing badly, he reaps illness, poverty, humiliation. By doing well, he tastes joy and peace. This is the law of karma, which determines a person’s fate both in this life and in future reincarnations.
This law constitutes the mechanism of samsara, which is called bhavacakra -
"wheel of life" Bhavacakra consists of 12 nidanas (links): ignorance
(avidya) determines karmic impulses (sanskaras); they form consciousness (vijnana); consciousness determines the nature of nama-rupa - the physical and psychological appearance of a person; Nama-rupa contributes to the formation of the six senses (ayatana) - vision, hearing, touch, smell, taste and the perceiving mind. Perception (sparsha) of the surrounding world gives rise to feeling itself (vedana), and then desire (trishna), which in turn gives rise to attachment (upadana) to what a person feels and thinks about. Attachment leads to walking into existence (bhava), the consequence of which is birth (jati). And every birth inevitably entails old age and death.
This is the cycle of existence in the world of samsara: every thought, every word and deed leaves its own karmic trace, which leads a person to the next incarnation. The goal of a Buddhist is to live in such a way as to leave as few karmic traces as possible. This means that his behavior should not depend on desires and attachment to objects of desires.
“I won everything, I know everything. I gave up everything, with the destruction of desires I became free. Learning from myself, who will I call teacher?”
This is what it says in the Dhammapada.
Buddhism sees the highest goal of religious life in liberation from karma and exit from the circle of samsara. In Hinduism, the state of a person who has achieved liberation is called moksha, and in Buddhism - nirvana. Nirvana is peace, wisdom and bliss, the extinction of the fire of life, and with it a significant part of emotions, desires, passions - everything that makes up the life of an ordinary person. And yet this is not death, but the life of a perfect, free spirit.
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Early Buddhism
Buddha's disciples, in accordance with custom, cremated the Teacher's body. The rulers of neighboring states sent messengers with a request to give them particles of the remains of the Buddha. As described in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta, the remains were divided into eight equal parts. These parts of the remains were placed in special reliquaries - stupas, cone-shaped religious buildings, in the capitals of states. One of the parts, in the stupa of the ancient city of Kapilavatthu, was discovered in 1898 near the village of Piprahva. Now this part of the remains is in the Indian National Museum in New Delhi.
These stupas became, as it were, the predecessors of Chinese pagodas and Tibetan chortens (Mongolian suburgans).
Later, texts of sutras began to be placed in stupas, revered as recordings of the original words of the Buddha. Since the essence of the Buddha is the Dharma, his Teaching, the sutras seemed to represent the Dharma as the spiritual body of the Buddha. This replacement (physical body - spiritual body; “powers” - texts; Buddha - Dharma) turned out to be very important for subsequent Buddhism, since here, apparently, are the origins of the extremely important teaching of Mahayana Buddhism about the Dharma Body of the Buddha (Dharmakaya).
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Spread of Buddhism.
Currently, Buddhism exists in Naples, Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Tibet, China, Japan and the islands of Java and Sumatra.
In all these countries Buddhism has more or less deviated from its primitive, pure form and even absorbed completely alien elements. So, for example, in Tibet (where Buddhism is called Lamaism), the population of the Mongolian tribe, very poorly cultural and completely original, understood and reworked Buddhism in their own way.
In Lamaism there is an extensive hierarchy of sacred persons possessing divine dignity. The cult developed strongly in Lamaism. Travelers to Yahassa talk about a huge number of monasteries, church bells, images, relics, fasting, worship, and many rituals.
In China, Buddhism also adopted a richly developed cult, just like in Japan.
In such a distorted form and adapted to the understanding of the uncultured masses, Buddhism has many followers and in terms of their number (over 300 million) is considered the first religion in the world.
In modern times, attempts have been made to revive Buddhism in the cultural classes of European society. These attempts were partially successful, and under the name of neo-Buddhism there is still a religious and philosophical movement that has its followers on the continent, in England, and in America.
But this trend cannot have global significance. Buddhism has outlived all its main principles, and humanity, in the person of its leaders and prophets, already sees further than Buddhism saw.
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Hello, dear readers and seekers of truth! Over its long history of existence, Buddhism has told the whole planet about itself and has found its way into even its most unexpected corners. So where does it come from, in what century did it originate, why did it appear, how far has it gone and which famous people profess it? You will learn about all this from the article below, and as a pleasant addition, you will get acquainted with the beautiful story about Siddhartha, a handsome prince from the Shakya family. Buddhism is the oldest world religion. There are legends about how Buddhism came to be, and they may seem like funny fiction, but there are also proven facts on this topic. There is no dispute about the country in which Buddhism originated. Its historical homeland is the northeast of India, where the state of Bihar is located today. Then - in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. – on these lands were the countries of Magadha, Vaishali and Koshala. It was here that he began to preach, it was here that the “hearth” of the future world religion was located. The history of Buddhism is inextricably linked with the name of its founder, or rather, with several of his names, and their roots go back to Sanskrit: The root “buddh” in Sanskrit is also found in Russian and means the same thing as the word “wake up”. Our language is generally very similar to Sanskrit. This may seem incredible if you do not delve into linguistics - Russian belongs to the group of Indo-European languages. The founding date of the Buddhist tradition is the death (parinirvana) of the Buddha. But there are still disagreements among Buddhist scholars about exactly what year this happened. UNESCO accepted the date - 544 BC, and in 1956 the whole world joyfully celebrated the holiday - 2500 years of Buddhism. Other scientists give different dates. One thing is certain - Buddha lived and preached before the Indian campaigns of Alexander the Great, which took place in the 20s of the 4th century BC. Firstly, at that time a crisis of the ancient Vedic culture was approaching in India. It dominated for a long time and was distinguished by ritualism, sacrifices and the formal piety of the Brahmin priests. The old tribal foundations ceased to correspond to the consciousness of people, and society needed new, alternative teachings and religions. Secondly, at the same time state power was strengthened. The Varnov (class) system underwent changes. The kshatriya varna, which embodied the noble power of the Indian kings in ancient times, became stronger and began to oppose the brahmana varna. In north-eastern India, the privileges of the Brahmins were already less compared to the rest of the country, and during the crisis this area became open to new trends and traditions. Because of this, in the Indian northeast, in the “weak link” of Brahmanism, a source of the Buddhist religion appeared, which gradually spread throughout the country and further throughout Southeast Asia, and its flow brought renunciation and deliverance to everyone. As Buddhism grew, it was divided into different types: Hinayana, Mahayana and other smaller types, and later it came to Tibet, firmly rooted there and transformed into a new form - Lamaism. By the XI-XII centuries. Buddhism was almost completely “expelled” by Hinduism from its historical homeland. Today, only 0.7 percent of Indians are Buddhists. For almost 26 centuries, Buddhist teachings, or dharma, have brought inner peace and spiritual harmony to millions of people. But who was this Buddha? By now, the life story of Buddha has become intertwined with both scientific biography and beautiful, fairy-tale-like plots. It is impossible to separate them, and maybe it makes no sense at all. The story of the heir to the crown, and later the great Awakened One, is told in various hagiographic texts, for example, “The Life of Buddha” by the Indian poet Ashvaghosa (1st century AD) or “Lalitavistara” in the Mahayana traditions. A boy was born into the family of King Shuddhodana and Queen Mahamaya. When, after conception, the queen saw in a dream an unusual elephant that had six tusks, she realized that she was destined to give birth to a great man. The astrologer Ashita, invited by the king after the birth of his son, saw signs on the baby that are characteristic only of a great man. For example, his palms, feet and eyebrows were crowned with wheel signs, and his fingers were connected by webs. The boy was named Siddhartha Gautama. He was prophesied to be the title of world ruler or Awakened One. The father wanted the baby to inherit the throne, and in every possible way protected him from the vicissitudes of life, protected him from the sight of illness, old age and death. The prince lived for 29 years in a flourishing palace, far from mortality, and took the beautiful Yashodhara as his wife, with whom they had a son, Rahula. But one day Siddhartha went outside the palace and saw a man beaten by illness, a very old man and a funeral procession. It slashed across his heart like a sharp knife, and he realized the futility of existence. And then he saw a samana - a detached, poor, thin monk - and realized the serenity that can be achieved by renouncing worldly worries and desires. The heir to the throne, Siddhartha, abandoned everything, leaving his father, wife and son, renouncing his former comfortable lifestyle and setting off in search of truth. He wandered for a long time, listening to the teachings of various sages, subjected himself to severe asceticism for several years, but in the end, alone with himself, he discovered the Middle Way, which implied, on the one hand, the rejection of complete asceticism, and on the other, the avoidance of excesses. Siddhartha reached when he was 35 years old. That's how he became Buddha. For 45 years, he preached to everyone, sharing his discovery and his truth. Buddha did not leave his family either. One day he returned to the land of the Shakyas, and everyone warmly rejoiced at him. After talking with the Buddha, his son and wife also accepted monasticism. At the beginning of his ninth decade, the Buddha achieved the unshakable peace of nirvana. He received the Great Liberation, leaving a huge legacy for many generations on different continents, which over its centuries-old history has become an entire religion. King Shuddhodana was ultimately left without heirs. Seeing the suffering of his father, Buddha promised to take the only son in the family as a monk only with the consent of the parents. And this condition is still very much revered in Buddhism. Over time, the Buddha's teaching spread further, underwent changes, and took on new forms and content. Today, Buddhist teachings extend not only to southeast Asia: Thailand, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Nepal, Japan, Myanmar, Laos, Bhutan. Since the end of the century before last, it has attracted Europeans and Americans, and the total number of Buddhists on the planet now reaches 500 million people. The ideas and principles of Buddhism are increasingly taking root in Western culture: modern fiction is replete with book covers about Buddhism, Hollywood is making films about Buddha, and many famous figures consider themselves his followers. For example, back in 1922, the German Hermann Hesse told the world his interpretation of the story “Siddhartha,” and Jack Kerouac reveals the path of Americans who follow their Zen philosophy. Keanu Reeves takes on the role of Gautama and seeks liberation in Little Buddha, the full version of the legend briefly told above. And there are countless Buddhists among famous people: Albert Einstein, Sergei Shoigu, Jackie Chan, Bruce Lee, Jennifer Lopez, Leonardi DiCaprio, Steve Jobs, Sting, Kate Moss - the list goes on and on. Buddhism has rightfully attracted millions of adherents. Having appeared 2.5 thousand years ago in distant India, it became not just a religion, but an entire philosophy, tradition, teaching, revered throughout the world. See you in the next post! As a religious movement, Buddhism originated in the northeastern part of India. Its founder was Prince Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni, who later became known as Buddha, i.e. "awakened". From birth he was predicted to become a great ruler or a mystic and ascetic. Siddhartha's father believed that if the prince was protected from the negative aspects of life, he would make a choice in favor of the worldly rather than the spiritual. Until the age of 29, Siddhartha lived a luxurious life in his father's palace. The prince did not know any worries; he was surrounded by servants and beautiful girls. But one day the young man secretly left the palace and during his walk for the first time he could observe grief, illness and poverty. Everything he saw shocked the prince. Buddha began to think about the vanity of existence, he came to the conclusion that earthly joys are too insignificant and fleeting. Siddhartha left the palace forever and began to live as a hermit. For many years he led an ascetic lifestyle until he achieved enlightenment. For reference: the history of the emergence of Buddhism does not reveal exactly the moment of the birth of this religion. According to the Theravada traditions (one of the oldest Buddhist schools), Buddha lived from 624 to 544 AD. BC. The Ganges Valley, located in India, became the historical homeland of the religious movement. These Truths are the essence of Buddhism. They should be known to anyone interested in this Eastern religion: What do the four noble truths of Buddhism teach us? First of all, they testify that life, birth and death are suffering. Dissatisfaction is inherent in every person, be he a beggar or a king. Everywhere and everywhere people are faced with death, illness and other misfortunes. According to Buddhist traditions, suffering is caused by human desires. Until the thirst for pleasure leaves a person, he will be forced to reincarnate on earth again and again (go through the circle of Samsara). The inability to get what you want, as well as the loss of what you want or satiation, cause dissatisfaction. The Third Noble Truth teaches that it is possible to end all suffering once and for all and achieve the state of nirvana. Buddha was very reluctant to explain what nirvana is. This is an indescribable state of fullness of being, liberation from bonds, attachments and desires. The Fourth Truth shows adepts the way in which nirvana can be achieved. This is the Noble Eightfold Path, which includes a set of moral and ethical instructions. One of the attributes of the “Path” is “right concentration”, i.e. meditation practice. Adherents of Buddhism believe that the law of karma largely determines the human condition. Past actions determine whether an individual will be born rich or poor, healthy or sick, and whether his parents will love him. It is noteworthy that not only bad, but also good karma binds a person to the earth. Therefore, in order to free oneself, an individual must not only get rid of accumulated “debts”, but also receive a reward for good deeds. Indian culture is one of the most original and unique. Its originality lies, first of all, in the richness and diversity of religious and philosophical teachings. In this, Indian culture has no equal. That is why, already in ancient times, India was called “the land of the sages.” The second feature of Indian culture is associated with its appeal to the Universe, its immersion in the secrets of the universe. The third important feature of Indian culture, which outwardly seems to contradict the previous one, is its inward focus on the human worldview, self-immersion into the depths of the human soul. A striking example of this is the famous philosophy and practice of yoga. The unique uniqueness of Indian culture is also due to its amazing musicality and danceability. Another important feature is the Indians’ special reverence for love - sensual and physical, which they do not consider sinful. The culture of Ancient India existed approximately from the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. and until the 6th century. AD The modern name “India” appeared only in the 19th century. The history of Ancient India falls into two large periods. The first is the time of the Harappan civilization, which developed in the Indus River valley (2500-1800 BC). The second period - Aryan - covers all subsequent Indian history and is associated with the arrival and settlement of Aryan tribes in the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers. After the decline of the Harappan civilization, Aryan tribes came to the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers. With the arrival of the Aryans in Indian history and culture, a new, Indo-Aryan period begins, the main source of information about which is the Vedas created by the Aryans (from the verb “to know”, “to know”). They are a collection of religious texts. At the new - epic stage (1st millennium BC), Vedism is transformed into Brahmanism - a more harmonious doctrine of the world, in which the former multitude of gods is reduced to a trinity: Brahma is the creator of the world; Vishnu is the protector of the world; Shiva is the destroyer of the world. With the decomposition of tribal relations in India, there is a stratification of society, which is entrenched in castes. In this hierarchy, the leading position was occupied by the Brahman priests. Brahmanism as a religion reflected a new situation. In the religion of Brahmanism, the performance of rituals was entrusted to the Brahmans. A person could turn to God only through a brahman, because the rituals themselves were very complicated and not everyone could master these rituals. For example, a large place in ritual sacrifices was given to hymns that had to be memorized, and in large quantities. In the middle of the century, Brahmanism transformed into Hinduism, which assimilated many Indian beliefs - from pagan to Buddhism. Hinduism is the most widespread religion in India, comprising more than 80% of believers. It exists in the form of two main directions: Vaishnavism and Shaivism. At the same time, today an independent branch of Hinduism is Krishnaism. Indians believed that you cannot become a Hindu - you can only be born one; that varna, the social role, is predetermined forever and changing it is a sin. Hinduism gained particular strength in the Middle Ages, becoming the main religion of the population. The “book of books” of Hinduism was and remains the “Bhagavad Gita”, part of the ethical poem “Mahabharata”, in the center of which is love for God and through this the path to religious liberation. In the 6th century BC. Buddhism appears in India - one of the three world religions. Its creator was Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni, who at the age of forty achieved a state of enlightenment and received the name Buddha (enlightened). The basis of Buddhism is the doctrine of the “four noble truths”: there is suffering; its source is desire; salvation from suffering is possible; there is a path to salvation, to liberation from suffering. The path to salvation lies through renunciation of worldly temptations, through self-improvement, through non-resistance to evil. The highest state is nirvana and means salvation. Nirvana (extinction) is a borderline state between life and death, meaning complete detachment from the outside world, the absence of any desires, complete satisfaction, inner enlightenment. Buddhism promises salvation to all believers, regardless of belonging to a particular varna or caste. There are two schools of thought in Buddhism. The first - Hinayana (small vehicle) - involves complete entry into Nirvana. The second - Mahayana (big vehicle) - means getting as close as possible to Nirvana, but refusing to enter it for the sake of helping and saving others. Early Buddhism is distinguished by its simplicity of ritual. Its main element is: the cult of Buddha, preaching, veneration of holy places associated with the birth, enlightenment and death of Guatama, worship of stupas - religious buildings where the relics of Buddhism are kept. Mahayana added the veneration of bodhisattvas to the cult of Buddha, thereby making the ritual more complex: prayers and various kinds of spells were introduced and began to be practiced sacrifices, a magnificent ritual arose. Like any religion, Buddhism contained the idea of salvation - in Buddhism it is called “nirvana”. It is possible to achieve it only by following certain commandments. Life is suffering that arises in connection with desire, the desire for earthly existence and its joys. Therefore, one should give up desires and follow the Eightfold Path—righteous views, righteous conduct, righteous effort, righteous speech, righteous thinking, righteous remembrance, righteous living, and self-improvement. The ethical side played a huge role in Buddhism. Following the Eightfold Path, a person must rely on himself, and not seek outside help. Buddhism did not recognize the existence of a creator god, on whom everything in the world depends, including human life. The cause of all man's earthly suffering lies in his personal blindness; inability to give up worldly desires. Only by extinguishing all reactions to the world, by destroying one’s own “I,” can nirvana be achieved. MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION OF UKRAINE ODESSA NATIONAL MARINE ACADEMY Department of Philosophy ABSTRACT ON THE TOPIC: “Philosophy of Ancient India. Buddhism" Completed: Cadet of group 2122 Harutyunyan T.R. Checked by: Donnikova I.A. ODESSA 2010 Introduction Ancient India is one of the largest centers of ancient civilization where philosophy originated. The philosophy of Ancient India arose around the second millennium BC. e., when the northern part of India began to be inhabited by Indo-European tribes - the Aryans. The most ancient monument of Indo-Aryan culture is the Vedas. The Vedas were transmitted orally. The oral nature of the Vedic tradition predetermined many features of Indian thinking. Therefore, India was thousands of years ahead of Europe in understanding and analyzing language. The main philosophical teachings in Ancient India were Jainism, Buddhism, and Charvaka Lokayata. Hinduism includes six orthodox schools: Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta. Therefore, it is not surprising that the philosophy of Hinduism is not based on one religious fundamental system, but combines elements of different faiths and traditions that go back centuries. It should be noted that, despite the generally accepted term “Hinduism,” it should be borne in mind that the philosophical schools and mystical practices of the Hindus are so numerous that the general name can be adopted purely conditionally. However, one should not assume that various systems developed only among a certain circle of active followers without mutual influence on each other. On the contrary, every philosophical school considers it its duty to consider and answer all possible objections raised against its views. This constant mutual criticism gave rise to a wealth of philosophical literature in India. Moreover, thanks to mutual criticism, a tendency has developed to formulate ideas clearly and precisely and to develop defensive arguments against the objections put forward. Moreover, mutual criticism has made Indian philosophy its own best critic. 1. Pre-philosophy of Ancient India Dharma is a teaching, a doctrine, in our understanding, a philosophy. In the east, dharma is philosophy and religion together (inseparable), dharma is the moral duty and path of every pious person. There are three main stages in Indian philosophy: ) Vedic period (1500 - 500 BC), ) classical, or Brahmano-Buddhist period (500 BC - 1000 AD) and ) post-classical, or Hindu period (from 1000 AD). 1.1 Vedas The Vedas are the first monument to the thought of ancient Indians. "Veda" translated from Sanskrit means "knowledge", "knowledge". The Vedas, which arose between the second and first millennium BC, played a huge, decisive role in the development of the spiritual culture of ancient Indian society, including the development of philosophical thought. The Vedas consist of hymns, prayers, spells, chants, sacrificial formulas, etc. They are the first to attempt a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious worldview, the first philosophical idea of the world, man, and moral life. The Vedas are divided into four groups (or parts). The oldest of them is Samhitas (hymns). The Samhitas, in turn, consist of four collections. The earliest of them is the Rig Veda, a collection of religious hymns (about one and a half thousand years BC). The second part of the Vedas Brahmanas (collection of ritual texts). The religion of Brahmanism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the Aranyaka Vedas ("forest books", rules of conduct for hermits). The fourth part of the Vedas is the Upanishad, the actual philosophical part, which arose about a thousand years BC. Already at this time, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose, the formation of the first philosophical teachings (religious-idealistic and materialistic) began. The Vedas are divided into two categories: shruti and smriti. Category shruti - considered to be revealed scriptures without an author, eternal transcendental knowledge, recording the sounds of truth. Truth has been transmitted orally since the beginning of the universe. The Indian sage Vyasadeva wrote down the Vedas for people. He divided the Vedas into four parts according to the types of sacrifices: Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva. ) Rig Veda - the Veda of praise, consists of 1017 hymns in poetic form, most of the verses glorify Agni, the god of fire and Indra, the god of rain and the heavenly planets. ) Samo-Veda - the Veda of chants, a description of prayer during sacrifices. ) Yajur Veda - the Veda of sacrifices, a description of the ritual of sacrifice. ) Atharva Veda - the Veda of spells, descriptions of spells, contains various songs and rituals, most of them intended to cure diseases After this, for people of low intelligence - women, workers and unworthy descendants of high castes, Vyasadeva composed 18 Puranas and epics Mahabharata which belong to the category of smritis. Mantras (sacred hymns of Hindus that require accurate reproduction of sounds), Brahmanas (texts for priests), Aranyakas (sacred scriptures of Hinduism that describe sacrificial rituals for limited use), 108 Upanishads (heard from a teacher), and some other Vedas constitute the Vedic system literature. 1.2 Rigveda The Rig Veda is the earliest monument of ancient Indian culture; it is a collection of religious hymns. The main content of the Rig Veda consists of solemn chants, spells and prayers (their authorship is attributed to ancient Indian poets and sages - rishis) addressed to numerous deities of the Vedic pantheon, who personified for the ancient Indian, first of all, various phenomena and processes of nature. At the same time, the Rig Veda reflects dissatisfaction with the naive mythological interpretation of reality, the first, still timid doubts about the existence of the Vedic gods are already expressed, priestly rituals and rites are ridiculed and questioned. The thinkers of Ancient India began to think about the beginning of existence, the origin of the universe, the laws governing it, the causes of social differences, etc. The thousand-headed, thousand-eyed and thousand-legged purusha... Purusha is all that has become and will become... What have become his mouth, his thighs, his legs? His mouth became Brahman, his hands became Kshatriya, His thighs became vaishya, and from his legs a sudra emerged. The moon was born from a thought, the sun arose from the eyes, From the mouths of Indra and Agni, from the breath arose the wind, Air space emerged from the navel, The sky appeared from the head. From the feet the earth, the countries of the world from the ears. This is how the worlds were distributed. According to ancient Indian mythology, Purusha is the first man, from whom the elements of the cosmos, the universal soul, “I” arose. Purusha acts as the material “filler” of the Universe. He exists everywhere at the same time, filling everything. At the same time, Purusha is the cosmic mind: he is an “expert in the VEDAS”, “thought is embedded” in him. Later (in the Upanishads) he is identified with the world soul - Atman. .3 Upanishads Upanishads (“to sit near”, i.e. at the feet of the teacher, receiving instructions; or “secret, intimate knowledge”) philosophical texts that appeared about one thousand years BC and in form, as a rule, represented a dialogue between a sage-teacher and his student or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his student. In total, about a hundred Upanishads are known. They are dominated by the problem of the root cause, the first principle of being with the help of which the origin of all natural and human phenomena is explained. The dominant place in the Upanishads is occupied by teachings that consider Brahman or atman as the primary cause and fundamental principle of the existence of the spiritual principle. Brahman and atman are usually used as synonyms, although Brahman is more often used to designate God, the omnipresent spirit, and atman the soul. Starting from the Upanishads, Brahman and atman become the central concepts of all Indian philosophy (and especially Vedanta). In some Upanishads, Brahman and atman are identified with the material root cause of the world - food, breath, material elements (water, air, earth, fire), or with the whole world as a whole. In most Upanishad texts, Brahman and atman are interpreted as the spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man. A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “Tat tvam asi” (“You are that”, or “You are one with that”). The Upanishads and the ideas expressed in them do not contain a logically consistent and holistic concept. With a general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, they also present other judgments and ideas and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental basis of the phenomena of the world and the essence of man. Thus, in some texts there is a desire to explain the external and internal world as consisting of four or even five material elements. Sometimes the world is presented as an undifferentiated being, and its development as the sequential passage of certain states by this being: fire, water, earth, or gaseous, liquid, solid. This is precisely what explains all the diversity that is inherent in the world, including human society. Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided into two levels in the Upanishads: lower and higher. At the lowest level, you can only cognize the surrounding reality. This knowledge cannot be true, since its content is fragmentary and incomplete. The highest knowledge of truth, i.e. spiritual absolute, this is the perception of being in its integrity. It can only be acquired with the help of mystical intuition, which in turn is formed to a large extent thanks to yogic exercises. It is the highest knowledge that gives power over the world. One of the most important problems in the Upanishads is the study of the essence of man, his psyche, emotional disturbances and forms of behavior. The thinkers of Ancient India noted the complexity of the structure of the human psyche and identified in it such elements as consciousness, will, memory, breathing, irritation, calm, etc. Their interrelation and mutual influence are emphasized. An undoubted achievement should be considered the characteristics of various states of the human psyche and, in particular, the waking state, light sleep, deep sleep, and the dependence of these states on the external elements and primary elements of the external world. In the field of ethics, the Upanishads predominantly preach a passive-contemplative attitude towards the world: the deliverance of the soul from all worldly attachments and worries is proclaimed to be the highest happiness. The Upanishads distinguish between material and spiritual values, between goodness, as a calm state of mind, and the base pursuit of sensual pleasures. By the way, it was in the Upanishads that the concept of transmigration of souls (samsara) and retribution for past actions (karma) was first expressed. Here the desire is expressed to determine the cause-and-effect relationship in the chain of human actions. An attempt is also made, with the help of moral principles (dharma), to correct human behavior at every stage of his existence. The Upanishads are essentially the foundation for all or almost all subsequent philosophical movements that appeared in India, since they presented or developed ideas that “nourished” philosophical thought in India for a long time. 1.4 Bhagavad Gita Speaking about the philosophy of Ancient India, one cannot fail to mention the extensive epic poem "Mahabharata", consisting of eighteen books. The greatest interest from a philosophical point of view is one of the books “Bhagavad-Gita” (“Divine Song”). Unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented in the form of individual statements and provisions, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear here, giving an interpretation of worldview problems. Of primary importance among these concepts is the teaching of Samkhya and the closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned in the Upanishads. The basis of the concept is the position of prakrit, or pradhan (matter, nature), as the source of all existence (including the psyche, consciousness) and the pure spirit purusha (spiritual principle, also called Brahman, atman), independent of it. Thus, the worldview is dualistic, based on the recognition of two principles. The main content of the Bhagavad Gita is the teachings of the god Krishna. God Krishna, according to Indian mythology, is the eighth avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu. God Krishna speaks of the need for every person to fulfill his social (varna) functions and duties, to be indifferent to the fruits of worldly activity, and to devote all his thoughts to God. "Bhagavad Gita" contains important ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: about the mystery of birth and death; about the relationship between prakriti and human nature; about the gunas (three material principles born of nature: tamas - an inert inert principle, inaction; rajas - a passionate, active, exciting principle, action; sattva - an uplifting, enlightened, conscious principle, stability. Their symbols are black, red and white colors, respectively ) that determine people's lives; about the moral law (dharma) of fulfilling one’s duty; about the path of a yogi (a person who has devoted himself to yoga and the improvement of consciousness); about genuine and non-genuine knowledge. The main virtues of a person are called balance, detachment from passions and desires, and detachment from earthly things. 2. Philosophical schools of Ancient India Philosophical currents of Hindu thought are divided into orthodox astika (based on Vedic knowledge) and oppositional - nastika. The latter include Buddhism and Jainism. There are six orthodox schools, and, as a rule, they are presented in pairs: Nyaya/Vaisheshika, Samkhya/Yoga and Mimamsa/Vedanta. 2.1 Nyaya and Vaisheshika These two teachings arose as independent schools around the 4th century. BC e. and subsequently united into one philosophical system. Nyaya represents the epistemological school. The adherents of this doctrine were engaged in the theory of knowledge. Thus, four main sources of knowledge were identified: perception, inference, evidence and analogy. According to the doctrine, it is these four aspects that determine the motivation of a person’s actions. Vaisheshika is a school that gravitates towards a metaphysical understanding of existence and represents the cosmological aspects of knowledge. Within the framework of this school, a structural analysis was undertaken of the basic elements of earth, water, fire and air and the associated concepts of taste, color, touch and smell. This current proclaimed to paramana the invisible substance that makes up all that exists, for this is confirmed by the consistent fragmentation of any object into smaller and smaller components. The basis of the philosophical system is personal experience acquired at the sensory level. The experience gained is analyzed, and the category of manifestation of padartha is determined, which is amenable to cognition and verbal description. There are seven such categories: substance, quality, action, generality, peculiarity, inherence and non-existence. All seven are recognized as real. In other words, in reality, everything that can be empirically studied represents a substantial principle, specific characteristics and is in relationship with other objects. Moreover, the characteristics and relationships are no less real than the material manifestation itself. All of the above belongs to the phenomenal world and is understandable through experience. The Nyaya/Vaisheshika philosophical system considers the qualitative characteristics of objects as an unconditional reality. For example, every thing has inherent qualities of “arborescence”, which give rise to other qualitative categories. Thus, any tree becomes green during the appropriate period of the year, that is, it acquires a specific quality, which, in turn, becomes an independent category. philosophy India Buddhism orthodox 2.2 Sanshya Sanshya is rightfully considered the oldest philosophical school. The key concepts of the system are prakriti (matter) and purusha (consciousness, spiritual origin). It is generally accepted that the school was founded by Kapila between 100 and 200 AD. e., but no written evidence has been found. The most ancient text that has survived to our time dates back to the 5th century. AD The conceptual basis of the school is built on the same theses that other Hindu teachings proclaim, understanding the reality of existence and searching for ways to liberation from suffering. Practical recommendations for spiritual growth are provided by yoga that accompanies Samkhya. According to Samkhya, the ultimate reality appears in two forms: as prakriti and purusha. Prakriti represents the primary substance of the universe. It is woven from three gunas (literally ropes, ropes): sattva (reality, insight; at the psychological level it is identical to happiness); rajas (darkness, non-stop activity, causing pain); tamas (dark inert principle that generates ignorance and indifference). Prakriti, embodied in the three gunas, corresponds to the causal material world, limited in time and space. However, the primordial, non-embodied prakriti exists outside of time and causality, is inaccessible to empirical perception and is an unconscious (non-spiritual) principle. In other words, the universe arose from an unmanifested material substance, inaccessible to sensory perception. This reality is a combination of qualities (gunas), but by itself cannot be identified. In contrast to the first category, purusha appears as a purely spiritual principle. This concept should not be understood as mind, ego or intellect, since Samkhya treats the last three concepts as subtle material forms. Purusha represents the eternal, unchanging principle of individuality, standing outside of time and space. There are various proofs of the existence of purusha, including the premise of the evidence of such manifestations as pleasure, pain and indifference embodied in prakriti. In addition, it is argued that liberation from the adversities of the manifested world makes sense only in the case when there is a Spirit independent of the physical shell capable of such liberation. Note that purusha is not considered either as a transpersonal category or as some kind of independent deity (in fact, Samkhya philosophy anticipated atheism). On the contrary, since purusha is universal and immortal, it represents pure individual consciousness (Spirit), but in no way the Ego or intellect. Prakriti, fertilized by Purusha, undergoes an evolutionary cycle, the result of which is the sequential appearance of intellect, Ego, mind, sense organs and the physical sheath (body). According to Samkhya philosophy, the principle of self-consciousness (jiva) includes the Ego (ahankara), spiritualized by the purusha, the senses and the physical body. In other words, we are talking about two fundamental universal categories. However, individuals who have not achieved enlightenment are not able to identify their true “I” purusha, and the motivation of their actions mainly depends on the sensual needs of the physical body. Therefore, liberation is achievable only if purusha and prakriti are differentiated. In other words, a person is liberated as soon as he realizes the difference between his own spiritual nature and the subordinate principles of the Ego, intellect, sense perception and physical body. The methodology for such liberation is offered by the teaching known as yoga. About the epistemology (theory of knowledge) of Samkhya, in particular, about the position of this school in relation to cause-and-effect relationships, we can say that, according to Samkhya, sensory knowledge of the material world is perceived by a person through mental images. Without denying the essence of external manifestations, it is recognized that a person is not capable of fully cognizing the world as such, and the process of cognition itself comes down to the perception of sensory impressions. The second and third sources of knowledge are, respectively, inference (similar to the Nyaya school) and shruti (knowledge gleaned from sacred texts). However, in practice, Samkhya adherents rarely appeal to primary sources, limiting themselves to perception, inference and analogy. Here we can note a clear discrepancy with the position of Nyaya philosophy. The latter views the world as an object for sensory study, and from the point of view of Samkhya philosophers, the nature of things is not fully knowable, that is, it is nothing more than a sensory impression. Most evidence is based on the concept of cause and effect. In this sense, the Samkhya approach is distinct. Thus, it is argued that the effect is the result of the qualities inherent in the cause. For example, you can make cheese from milk, but not from water. It follows from this that any result is a consequence of some initial potential. In the example given, the cheese is the potential contained in the milk. Thus, milk becomes a causal category in relation to cheese, although the need for additional actions (churning, etc.) inducing the cause to materialize is not denied. So, it is obvious that the Samkhya school does not consider effect and cause as two separate concepts, but sees in them two states of one and the same manifestation. 2.3 Yoga Yoga is a set of religious and philosophical disciplines leading to liberation. The founder of the teaching is considered to be Patanjali (who lived c. 200 or c. 400 AD), who systematized the basic techniques in his “Yoga Sutra,” the oldest written manual on yoga. Despite the fact that basically the positions of yoga and Samkhya coincide, there is also a fundamental discrepancy. Unlike the latter, yoga adheres to the concept of a personal deity (Ishvara). Proof of the existence of Ishvara comes down to identifying the qualitative characteristics of existence. Thus, one object exceeds another in size and, therefore, a criterion (standard) for correlating values is needed. This premise, in turn, implies the presence of a Supreme Being, the bearer of all conceivable categories and qualities, in relation to which all things are assessed. In other words, value judgments imply awareness of the highest value of Ishvara. However, in yoga, the eternal, omnipotent and omnipresent Ishvara is not considered the Creator of the material world. This concept of God is significantly different from that proposed by the Nyaya/Vaisesika system. Yoga sets its goal to liberate purusha (achieve moksha), and this requires spiritual discipline from a person. The self-improvement system involves eight stages: Abstinence (yama) from unrighteous life, lies, covetousness, sex life and money-grubbing. Compliance with the precepts (niyama) of internal and external purity, contentment, taming of passions, meditation and surrender to the will of God. Static exercises (postures-asanas). Mastering harmonious breathing (pranayama). Directing consciousness inward (pratyahara) in order to prepare the physical body for spiritual experience. Concentration (dharana) of attention on an object. Contemplation (dhyana) of an object. Samadhi is a state of deep meditation (achieving superconsciousness). At the last, eighth stage, the purusha gains liberation from bodily bonds. In this state, the mind can still be aware of the object of meditation on an intuitive level, or it can completely abstract from the thought process and dissolve in the Absolute. The meditative process itself represents the practical realization of the nature of reality (purusha and prakriti) as stated in Samkhya philosophy. Personal God (Ishvara) plays the role of a source of spiritual exaltation, for the proof of his existence is perceived as intuitive knowledge of the Highest Principle. At the same time, service to Ishvara is an integral part of the physical and mental preparation of a yogi. 2.4 Mimamsa The followers of Mimamsa subjected the Vedas to logical reasoning and attached great importance to the Vedic hymns and the texts of some Brahmanas and Upanishads. This religious and philosophical teaching is divided into two schools: .Purva Mimamsa (early) emphasizes the observance of social and religious duty (dharma) in the light of Vedic teachings; sometimes this direction is called dharma-mimamsa. .Uttara Mimamsa (a later teaching) is based on the concept of Brahman as the First Cause of everything; the focus is on exploring the nature of reality rather than governing principles; sometimes this school is called Brahma Mimamsa. Uttara Mimamsa is also called Vedanta. Note that the term “early” (purva-mimamsa) should be understood not in a chronological sense, but in the light of the fact that the Vedanta system somewhat rethought some of the basic principles outlined in Vedic literature. It is generally accepted that the teaching was first set forth in Mimamsa -sutras" of Jaimini, who lived in the 3rd century A.D. However, long before the writing of this treatise, the teaching was transmitted from mouth to mouth. The most famous later interpretation was made by bhashya between the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. The starting point of the teaching is the premise that only those statements have meaning that prescribe the conditions of action of the cause. The essence of such a statement is that the Vedas are considered as the ultimate truth. Only events (facts) of personal life are knowable, which, depending on the circumstances ( evidence) can be declared true or false. As for the eternal concepts, they are incomprehensible because they cannot be described and identified. Thus, the knowledge set forth in the Vedas (as the true, eternal source of wisdom) exists outside the framework conventional world. How should Vedic knowledge be interpreted? The Mimamsa answers this question: eternal concepts are set forth in laws, rules and regulations. Based on the fact that semantic Vedic formulations are in one way or another determined by life’s precepts (laws of Dharma), the very posing of the question of the truth of the “Vedas” or an attempt at demonstrative verification is incorrect. Therefore, an adept of the teaching should not philosophize, but realize certain precepts of the Dharma in relation to his own life. Thus, Mimamsa in no way opposes Vedic knowledge, but tries to logically comprehend the prescriptions contained in them. The Mimamsa theory of knowledge is based on the premise of eternity and immutability of Vedic knowledge: knowledge is self-evident and identical to self-consciousness. In other words, bare facts do not reflect true knowledge. So, there is a clear dualism of the position. Reason exists independently of the objects of study, and knowledge is not derived from understanding the results of the empirical process, but is unshakable and immutable. Since the eternal truth cannot be revealed with the help of factual evidence, it is worth accepting it as it is depicted in the Vedas. This approach is entirely based on karmic cause-and-effect predetermination. All our actions have results, which, in turn, are determined by previous actions. The contribution of this school to Hinduism is to affirm the inviolability of observance of the laws of Dharma. The Vedas, as the main source of enduring knowledge, must be reinterpreted and commented on in the light of practical application again and again. Anything that goes beyond the requirements poses an obvious threat of aggravating karma and, accordingly, increasing suffering in the future. 2.5 Vedanta The philosophical system of Vedanta (literally the completion of the Vedas) is still very popular today. The school is based on the concept of Brahman of Absolute Reality, stated in the Upanishads, and the philosophical understanding of the Vedic tradition. The written primary source of the teaching is the Vedanta Sutra (2nd century AD), which includes earlier philosophical concepts. The key concept is considered to be Brahman, the ultimate truth, incomprehensible to the mind, but acquired through the process of prayerful contemplation and in-depth meditation. The Vedanta argument is as follows: Brahman is without quality (not being part of the phenomenal world, it is neither this nor that); only conditionality implies a specific concept and qualitative characteristics; Accordingly, Brahman is incomprehensible within the framework of conventional concepts. According to Vedanta, Brahman is embodied in physical forms, but remains unchanged. Brahman is the First Cause of everything, but since it is eternal and indivisible, it cannot be considered in the light of cause and effect. Thus, Absolute Reality is actually identified with the universe. There is nothing that is not Brahman, and at the same time there is no such thing that can be designated as Brahman. Although Vedanta attempts to create a monolithic universal concept based on Vedic knowledge, different approaches are clearly visible in the system. Thus, on the one hand, Brahman appears as an active force, for it is associated with the process of manifestation of material objects, the very existence of which is unthinkable without it. On the other hand, Vedanta, like other Hindu schools, adheres to the karmic theory of cause and effect, according to which everything that happens is the result of deeds committed in the past. 2.6 Jainism The design of this teaching is associated with the name of Mahavira Jina (6th century BC), considered the last of the 24 Tirthans (those who were able to free themselves from karma). Born into a kshatriya family, he left home at the age of 30. A few years later he regained his sight and began to preach his teachings. In the beginning, the followers were only ascetics who renounced everything material, including clothing, in order to achieve moksha. Later, the size of the community increased due to the laity who sympathized and fed them. Jainism proclaims dualism. The essence of man is twofold: material and spiritual. The soul of a person is higher than his material shell. To achieve moksha means to free the soul from matter. At the same time, karma was also considered material, and everything else seemed to stick to it. Jains have developed the concept of karma in detail and distinguish between eight types of different karmas (evil and good). Only after liberation from centuries of accumulated karma as from a sticky base, everything stuck to it is eliminated along with it. Jainism says that one must have deep conviction in the truth of the doctrine being professed. Jains believe that man, with the help of his spiritual essence, can control and manage the material essence. God is just a soul that once lived in a material body and was freed from the shackles of karma in the chain of rebirths. Jain ethics speaks of right understanding conditioned by right faith, right knowledge and consequent right knowledge and right living. Jain lifestyle. 5 basic vows: Do not harm living things Don't steal Don't commit adultery. Do not acquire Be sincere and godly. To these 5 additional vows were added, leading to a reduction in the pleasures of life. There are no peasants among the Jains (even damaging an earthworm with a plow is a sin). Therefore, the Jains settled in cities and were engaged in crafts or trade, possessing considerable capital, the Jains played a large role in the political life of the country. Castes continued to exist among the Jains, but did not have the same meaning as in Hinduism. A special layer was made up of ascetic monks who completely broke with normal life and were the standard and guideline for all Jains. First, the ascetic candidate must remain a novice for 3 years, fulfilling the vows he has taken. He then studies the doctrine of Jainism in depth. After this he is accepted as an ascetic, there is no turning back. Ascetics always lead the life of wanderers. The ascetic eats little by little, no more than twice a day. The ascetic lives by alms. One of the extreme measures of asceticism is refusal of food and death by starvation. Conclusion Indian philosophy is truly “living fruit” that continues to nourish the world’s human thought with its juices. Indian philosophy has maintained complete continuity. And no philosophy has had such a strong impact on the West as Indian. The search for “the light that comes from the East”, “the truth about the origin of the human race”, which many philosophers, theosophists, and, finally, hippies were occupied with in the 60-70s of our century is obvious evidence of the living connection that connects Western culture with India. Indian philosophy is not only exotic, but precisely the attractiveness of healing recipes that help a person survive. A person may not know the intricacies of the theory, but practice yoga breathing exercises for purely medical and physiological purposes. The main value of ancient Indian philosophy lies in its appeal to the inner world of man; it opens up a world of possibilities for a moral personality, and this is probably where the secret of its attractiveness and vitality lies. In the history of European philosophy, as a rule, one philosophical school was replaced by another; one or another philosophical school dominated until it was replaced by another. In India, we see a number of schools that, although they did not arise simultaneously, exist in parallel and flourish together for a number of centuries. The reason for this, apparently, is that in India philosophy was an integral part of life. As soon as a new system of thought appeared, a group of its supporters perceived it as a philosophy of life and created a school of this philosophy. They lived it and passed it on to generations of their followers who followed their way of life and thought. Thus, thanks to an unbroken chain of changing adherents, various systems of Indian philosophy could exist for centuries. Even today we can still find active followers of some of the major schools of thought in various parts of India, although the development of Indian philosophy has almost ceased due to the socio-political changes that have taken place. Need help studying a topic?
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