What is philosophy?

philosophy school methodology ancient

Philosophy (other - Greek tsilpuptsYab, literally - “philosophy”, “love of wisdom”) is a special form of knowledge of the world, developing a system of knowledge about the most general characteristics, extremely generalizing concepts and fundamental principles of reality (being) and knowledge, being man, about the relationship between man and the world. The tasks of philosophy throughout its history included both the study of the universal laws of development of the world and society, and the study of the very process of cognition and thinking, as well as the study of moral categories and values. Basic philosophical questions, for example, include the questions “Is the world knowable?”, “Does God exist?”, “What is truth?”, “What is good?”, “What is Man?”, “What is primary - matter?” or consciousness?" and others.

Although philosophy is sometimes defined more narrowly, as a science with a specific subject of study, this approach faces objections from modern philosophers who insist that philosophy is more of a worldview, a general critical approach to the knowledge of all things that is applicable to any object or concept. In this sense, every person at least occasionally engages in philosophy.

Philosophy actually exists in the form of many different philosophical teachings that oppose each other, but at the same time complement each other.

Philosophy includes many subject areas, from metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy and philosophy of science to philosophy of design. and philosophy of cinema (English) Russian.

Those areas of knowledge for which it is possible to develop a clear and workable methodological paradigm are separated from philosophy into scientific disciplines, as, for example, at one time physics, biology and psychology were separated from philosophy.

Every socialized normal person has a vital and practical worldview. As a rule, it develops spontaneously, based on the experience of previous generations. However, it happens that a person faces problems that his worldview cannot cope with. To solve them, a higher, critical-reflective level of worldview may be necessary. Philosophy is at this level.

The precise definition of philosophy is itself an open philosophical question. This is due to the fact that the subject of study in philosophy is not specifically defined - philosophy studies everything, including the methodology of knowledge itself (within the framework of epistemology). Within the framework of the teachings of different philosophical schools formed during the existence of philosophy, different definitions of what philosophy is can be given. Therefore, in a certain sense, the precise definition of philosophy has changed over time.

On the other hand, philosophy has an important unifying principle - any philosophical reasoning, no matter how unexpected its premises may be, is nevertheless constructed rationally: meaningfully, in accordance with certain principles of thinking, for example, logic. Rationality of reasoning distinguishes philosophical thinking from mythological thinking and religious thinking, which implies supranaturalism and the supernatural, that is, the irrational. This, however, does not mean that philosophy cannot exist in parallel, for example, with religion. On the contrary, situations are common when some religion was accepted as a prerequisite for a philosophical system, and the rational philosophical apparatus was further used to develop those areas of knowledge that were not covered by the canon of this religion. For example, ancient Indian philosophy interpreted the Vedas, and medieval European philosophers (St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas and others) interpreted the Bible. It is also common for philosophical thinking to be used to try to prove the validity of a religion or, more generally, to prove the existence of God. For example, apologists tried to rationalize Christianity.

In addition to logic, another method of philosophical thinking ensures the integrity of philosophy. Every new movement in philosophy, a new idea or a new philosophical school relates itself to previous philosophical concepts, providing a critical analysis (English) Russian. these concepts within the framework of their new paradigm. For example, Immanuel Kant's famous work, Critique of Pure Reason, contains a critical analysis of the concepts of rationalism and empiricism. Thus, logic and critical analysis are the pillars of philosophical thinking and ensure the integrity of philosophy.

At the same time, the vagueness of the definition of philosophy is its characteristic feature and separates philosophy from the sciences. If philosophers in some area manage to make a breakthrough by discovering an effective methodology of knowledge, then this area is usually separated from philosophy into an independent discipline. Thus, the successful application of the scientific method of cognition to various classes of natural objects finally separated part of natural philosophy from philosophy, which subsequently broke up into a string of natural sciences. For example, Isaac Newton wrote his fundamental work “Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”, being, according to his own ideas, a philosopher, and is currently known as a physicist and mathematician. All English-language science still retains traces of its kinship with philosophy, for example, in the fact that in all its disciplines the highest academic degree is called “Doctor of Philosophy”.

According to Lenin, expressed in his work “Materialism and Empirio-criticism,” “behind the epistemological scholasticism of empirio-criticism one cannot help but see the struggle of parties in philosophy, a struggle that ultimately expresses the tendencies and ideology of the hostile classes of modern society. Modern philosophy is as partisan as two thousand years ago. The fighting parties essentially... are materialism and idealism

Further specification of the definition of philosophy proceeds to a description of its various departments. Philosophy is divided along two main dimensions: by subjects of study and by “types,” that is, by different schools and concepts.

The first dimension identifies areas of application of philosophy. Of course, this division can be done in different ways. One of the largest such segmentations is the division of philosophy into metaphysics (issues of being, existence), epistemology (issues of knowledge) and axiology (issues of values ​​and morality). Otherwise, in a more classical version, in addition to the three areas listed above, logic (improvement of the rational philosophical apparatus) and history of philosophy (critical analysis of Russian philosophical concepts of the past) are also distinguished as separate subjects. The division of philosophy into theoretical, practical and poetic (creative) goes back to Aristotle.

The second dimension distinguishes different schools of thought and methodologies. The largest such division is, for example, the separation into a separate segment of all Western philosophy, that is, the totality of ancient philosophy and all philosophical schools and movements that subsequently emerged in Western Europe and the USA, including, for example, German classical philosophy, French philosophy, etc. Historically, due to language and spatial barriers, various philosophical schools have been localized within specific countries and peoples, such as ancient Greek philosophy, Chinese philosophy or German philosophy. Starting from the 17th century, with the gradual development of globalization, national and geographical differences began to play a lesser role, and various philosophical movements, becoming international, began to receive names that were not tied to geography and culture, such as Marxism, existentialism, and others. At the same time, some cultural and linguistic differences remain today, forming various philosophical directions. One of the most important such divisions is the division of modern philosophy into continental philosophy, which includes mainly the work of French and German modern philosophers, and analytical philosophy, which mainly develops in English-speaking countries

Since antiquity, philosophy has acquired the universal meaning of a special life path; belonging to different philosophical schools requires adherents to adhere to different life styles.

Philosophy(from Greek - love of truth, wisdom) - a form of social consciousness; the doctrine of the general principles of being and knowledge, the relationship of man to the world, the science of the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking. Philosophy develops a generalized system of views on the world, the place of man in it; it explores cognitive values, the socio-political, moral and aesthetic attitude of a person to the world.

The subject of philosophy are the universal properties and connections (relations) of reality - nature, man, the relationship between objective reality and the subjectivism of the world, material and ideal, being and thinking. Where the universal is the properties, connections, relationships inherent in both objective reality and the subjective world of man. Quantitative and qualitative certainty, structural and cause-and-effect relationships and other properties and connections relate to all spheres of reality: nature, consciousness. The subject of philosophy must be distinguished from the problems of philosophy, because the problems of philosophy exist objectively, independently of philosophy. Universal properties and connections (production and time, quantity and quality) existed when the science of philosophy did not yet exist as such.

The main functions of philosophy are: 1) synthesis of knowledge and creation of a unified picture of the world corresponding to a certain level of development of science, culture and historical experience; 2) justification, justification and analysis of worldview; 3) development of a general methodology for human cognition and activity in the surrounding world. Each science studies its own range of problems. To do this, he develops his own concepts that are used in a strictly defined area for a more or less limited range of phenomena. However, none of the sciences, except philosophy, deals with the special question of what “necessity”, “accident”, etc. are. although he can use them in his field. Such concepts are extremely broad, general and universal. They reflect universal connections, interactions and conditions of existence of any things and are called categories. The main tasks or problems concern the clarification of the relationship between human consciousness and the outside world, between thinking and the being around us.

As a rule, philosophy is treated as perhaps the most incomprehensible and abstract of all sciences, the most removed from everyday life. But although many people think of it as unconnected with ordinary interests and beyond comprehension, almost all of us - whether we are aware of it or not - have some kind of philosophical views. It is also curious that although most people have a very vague idea of ​​what philosophy is, the word itself appears quite often in their conversations.

The word “philosophy” comes from an ancient Greek word meaning “love of wisdom,” but when we use it in everyday life, we often give it a different meaning.

Sometimes by philosophy we understand an attitude towards a certain activity. Again, we are talking about a philosophical approach to something when we mean a long-term, as if detached, consideration of some immediate problem. When someone is upset about plans that have not come to fruition, we advise him to be more “philosophical” about it. Here we want to say that we should not overestimate the significance of the current moment, but try to view the situation in perspective. We put another meaning into this word when we mean by philosophy an attempt to evaluate or interpret what is or has meaning in life.

Generally speaking, regardless of the variety of meanings attached to the words “philosophy” and “philosophical” in everyday speech, we feel a desire to link this subject with some kind of extremely complex mental work. “...All...areas of knowledge border in the space surrounding us with the unknown. When a person enters the border areas or goes beyond them, he enters the realm of speculation from science. His speculative activity is also a type of study, and this, among other things, is philosophy.” (B. Russell). There are many questions that thinking people ask themselves at some point and to which science cannot offer an answer. Those who try to think do not want to accept the ready-made answers of the prophets on faith. The task of philosophy is, in an effort to embrace the world in its unity, to study these questions and, if possible, explain them.

Every person faces problems discussed in philosophy. How does the world work? Is the world developing? Who or what determines these laws of development? Which place is occupied by a pattern, and which by chance? The position of man in the world: mortal or immortal? How can a person understand his purpose? What are human cognitive capabilities? What is truth and how to distinguish it from lies? Moral problems: conscience, responsibility, justice, good and evil. These questions are posed by life itself. This or that question determines the direction of a person’s life. What is a sense of life? Does he exist at all? Does the world have a purpose? Is the story going anywhere? Is nature really governed by any laws? Is the world divided into spirit and matter? What is the way for them to coexist? What is a person: a piece of dust? A set of chemical elements? Spiritual giant? Or all together? Does it matter how we live: righteously or not? Is there a higher wisdom? Philosophy is called upon to correctly resolve these issues, to help transform spontaneously formed views in the worldview, which is necessary in the formation of personality. These problems found solutions long before philosophy - in mythology, religion and other sciences.

In terms of its content (V.F. Shapovalov, for example, believes that we should talk more about the content of philosophy, rather than about the subject), philosophy is the desire for inclusiveness and unity. If other sciences make the subject of study a particular slice of reality, then philosophy strives to embrace all of reality in its unity. Philosophy is characterized by the idea that the world has internal unity, despite the external fragmentation of its parts. The reality of the world as a whole is the content of philosophy.

We often imagine a philosopher as someone who sits around pondering the ultimate purpose of human life while everyone else barely has the time or energy to simply exist. Sometimes, mainly thanks to the media, we get the impression that these people devoted themselves to the contemplation of world problems and the creation of theoretical systems so abstract and general that, perhaps, are magnificent, but have little practical significance.

Along with this idea of ​​who philosophers are and what they are trying to do, there is another one. According to the latter, a philosopher is one who is entirely responsible for the general ideas and ideals of certain societies and cultures. We are told that thinkers such as Mr. Marx & Mr. Engels created the worldview of the Communist Party, while others such as Thomas Jefferson, John Locke and John Stuart Mill developed the theories that dominate the democratic world.

Regardless of these different ideas about the role of the philosopher, and regardless of how connected we imagine his activities to be with our immediate interests, the philosopher is involved in the consideration of problems that directly or indirectly matter to us all. Through careful critical examination, this person tries to evaluate the consistency of the data and beliefs that we have about the universe as a whole and about the world of people. As a result of this research, the philosopher tries to develop some kind of general, systematized, consistent and harmonious idea of ​​​​everything that we know and think about. As we learn more and more about the world with the help of the sciences, we need to consider more and more new interpretations of the ideas being developed. “What is the world like in the most general terms” is a question that no science, except philosophy, has dealt with, is not dealing with, and will not deal with” (B. Russell).

From the very beginning of philosophy more than two thousand years ago in Ancient Greece, among serious thinkers involved in this process, there was a belief in the need to carefully examine the rational validity of those views about the world around us and about ourselves that we accept. We all take in a wealth of information and a variety of opinions about the material universe and the human world. However, very few of us ever consider how reliable or significant this data is. We are generally inclined to accept without doubt the reports of the discoveries of science, sanctified by a tradition of conviction and variety of views based on personal experience. Likewise, the philosopher insists on a scrupulous critical examination of all this in order to establish whether these beliefs and views are based on sufficient grounds and whether a thinking person should accept them.

By its method, philosophy is a rational way of explaining reality. She is not content with emotional symbols, but strives for logical argumentation and validity. Philosophy strives to build a system based on reason, and not on faith or artistic image, which play an auxiliary role in philosophy.

The goal of philosophy is knowledge free from ordinary practical interests. Utility is not its goal. Aristotle also said: “All other sciences are more necessary, but none is better.”

In world philosophy, two trends are quite clearly visible. Philosophy comes closer to either science or art (V.A. Kanke).

In all historical eras, philosophy and science went hand in hand, complementing each other. Many ideals of science, such as evidence, systematicity, and testability of statements, were originally developed in philosophy. In philosophy, as in science, one researches, reflects, and some statements are substantiated by others. But where science separates (only what is relevant in the sphere of this science matters), philosophy unites; it is not typical for it to distance itself from any sphere of human existence. There is a never-ending process of exchange of ideas between philosophy and science, which has given rise to areas of knowledge bordering between science and philosophy (philosophical questions of physics, mathematics, biology, sociology; for example, the idea of ​​relativity, the independence of space and time, which was first discussed in philosophy by Leibniz , Mach, then in mathematics by Lobachevsky, Poincaré, and later in physics by Einstein). Never before has philosophy been as scientifically oriented as it is now. On the one hand, this is a good thing. But on the other hand, it is wrong to reduce all its advantages to the scientific orientation of philosophy. The first scientists were convinced of the compatibility of their views and religion. Unraveling the secrets of nature, they tried to decipher the “writings of God.” But with the development of science and the growth of its social influence, science is replacing all other forms of culture - religion, philosophy, art. (I.S. Turgenev wrote about this in his novel “Fathers and Sons”). Such an attitude threatens to completely displace elements of humanity and sympathy between people for each other from human relations.

There is also a sensory-aesthetic aspect of philosophy. For example, Schelling believed that philosophy is not content with a conceptual comprehension of the world, but strives for the sublime (feelings) and art is closer to it than science. This idea revealed the humanistic function of philosophy, its extremely attentive attitude towards man. This position is a good thing; it is bad when it is exaggerated and the scientific and moral orientation of philosophy is denied. “Philosophy is a call to refined truth and sublime feeling” (V.A. Kanke).

But it is not enough to explain the world and call for perfection; we need to change this world. But in what direction? We need a system of values, ideas about good and evil, what is right and wrong. Here the special role of philosophy in the practical support of the successful development of civilization becomes clear. A more detailed examination of philosophical systems always reveals their ethical content. Practical (moral) philosophy is interested in achieving good. High moral traits of people do not arise on their own; they are quite often a direct result of the fruitful activity of philosophers. Nowadays, the ethical function of philosophy is often called axiological; This refers to the orientation of philosophy towards known values. Axiology, as a science of values, developed only at the beginning of the twentieth century.

An ethicist philosopher chooses the ideals of good (and not evil) as the goal of his activity. The focus of philosophical discussion is not thought-action and not feeling-action, but any action, the universal goal - good. The ideals of goodness are characteristic of those pursuing the growth of knowledge, and for connoisseurs of the sublime, and for builders of highways, and for builders of power plants. Practical orientation is characteristic of philosophy as a whole, but it acquires universal significance precisely within the framework of the ethical function of philosophy.

The meaning of philosophy is not in practical usefulness, but in moral one, because philosophy is looking for an ideal, a guiding star in people's lives. First of all, the ideal is moral, associated with finding the meaning of human life and social development. At the same time, philosophy is guided by the ideals of science, art and practice, but these ideals acquire in philosophy an originality corresponding to its specificity. Being a whole, philosophy has a branched structure.

As a doctrine of being, philosophy acts as ontology (the doctrine of existence). The identification of different types of being - nature, man, society, technology - will lead to a philosophy of nature, man (anthropology), society (philosophy of history). The philosophy of knowledge is called epistemology or epistemology. As a doctrine about the ways of knowing, philosophy is a methodology. As a teaching about the ways of creativity, philosophy is heuristics. The branched areas of philosophy are philosophy of science, philosophy of religion, philosophy of language, philosophy of art (aesthetics), philosophy of culture, philosophy of practice (ethics), history of philosophy. In the philosophy of science, philosophical questions of individual sciences (logic, mathematics, physics, biology, cybernetics, political science, etc.) have relatively independent significance. And these individual specialized areas of philosophical knowledge are indirectly capable of bringing significant practical results. For example, the philosophy and methodology of science help individual sciences in solving the problems they face. Thus, philosophy contributes to scientific and technological progress. Social philosophy is involved in solving socio-political, economic and other problems. One can rightfully say that in all the achievements of mankind there is a significant, albeit indirect, contribution of philosophy. Philosophy is united and diverse; a person cannot do without it in any area of ​​his life.

What is this science about? Why not simply give a clear definition of its subject, consider it in such a way that it is clear from the very beginning what the philosopher is trying to do?

The difficulty is that philosophy is easier to explain by doing it than by describing it from the outside. Partly it consists in a certain approach to considering issues, partly in attempts to solve some problems traditionally of interest to those who call themselves (or are called so by others) “philosophers”. The only thing about which philosophers have never been able to agree, and are unlikely to ever agree at all, is what philosophy consists of.

People seriously engaged in philosophy set themselves various tasks. Some tried to explain and substantiate certain religious views, while others, while engaged in science, sought to show the significance and reveal the meaning of various scientific discoveries and theories. Still others (John Locke, Marx) used philosophy in an attempt to change the political organization of society. Many were interested in the substantiation and publication of some ideas that, in their opinion, could help humanity. Some did not set such grandiose goals for themselves, but simply wanted to understand the peculiarities of the world in which they live and understand the beliefs that people adhere to.

The professions of philosophers are as varied as their tasks. Some were teachers, often university professors who taught philosophy courses. Others were leaders of religious movements, many were even ordinary artisans.

Regardless of the goals pursued and the specific type of activity, all philosophers adhere to the belief that a thorough study and analysis of our views and our justification for them is extremely important and necessary. It is common for a philosopher to approach certain things in a certain way. He wants to establish what meaning our fundamental ideas and concepts carry, on what basis our knowledge is based, what standards should be adhered to in order to come to correct conclusions, what beliefs must be defended, etc. The philosopher believes that thinking about such questions leads a person to a deeper understanding of the universe, nature and people.

Philosophy generalizes the achievements of science and relies on them. Ignoring scientific achievements would lead it to vacuity. But the development of science occurs against the background of cultural and social development. Therefore, philosophy is called upon to contribute to the humanization of science and to increasing the role of moral factors in it. It must limit the exorbitant claims of science to be the only and universal way of exploring the world. It correlates the facts of scientific knowledge with the ideals and values ​​of humanitarian culture.

The study of philosophy contributes to the improvement of general culture and the formation of a philosophical culture of the individual. It expands consciousness: in order to communicate, people need breadth of consciousness, the ability to understand another person or themselves as if from the outside. Philosophy and philosophical thinking skills help with this. A philosopher has to consider the points of view of different people and critically comprehend them. This is how spiritual experience accumulates, which contributes to the expansion of consciousness.

However, when questioning any ideas or theories, one should not remain at this stage for long; it is necessary to move on in search of a positive solution, since continuous hesitation represents a fruitless dead end.

The study of philosophy is intended to form the art of living in an obviously imperfect world. To live without losing personal identity, individual soul and universal spirituality. It is possible to resist circumstances only with the ability to maintain spiritual sobriety, self-worth, and one’s own dignity. For the individual, the meaning of the personal dignity of other people becomes clear. For an individual, neither a herd nor an egoistic position is possible.

“Studying philosophy improves the ability to concentrate. Personality is impossible without internal composure. Collecting one’s own personality is akin to self-purification” (V.F. Shapovalov).

Philosophy makes people think. Bertrand Russell writes in his book The History of Western Philosophy: “It moderates religious and philosophical passions, and its practice makes people more intellectual, which is not so bad in a world in which there is a lot of stupidity.” Changing the world, he believes, can best be done through moral improvement and self-improvement. Philosophy can do this. A person must act on the basis of his thoughts and his will. But with one condition: not to encroach on the freedom of others. Having health, prosperity and the ability for creative work, he can succeed in spiritual self-improvement and achieve happiness.

The purpose of philosophy is to search for man’s destiny, to ensure man’s existence in a bizarre world. To be or not to be? - that is the question. And if so, what kind? The purpose of philosophy is ultimately to elevate man, to provide universal conditions for his improvement. Philosophy is needed to ensure the best possible condition for humanity. Philosophy calls every person to nobility, truth, beauty, goodness.

Used materials

· “Introduction to Philosophy” by W. Wundt, “CheRo” ©, “Dobrosvet” © 1998.

· “Philosophy: An Introductory Course” by Richard Popekin, Avrum Strohl “Silver Threads” ©, “University Book” © 1997.

· “The Wisdom of the West” by B. Russell, Moscow “Republic” 1998.

· “Philosophy” by V.A. Kanke, Moscow “Logos” 1998.

· “Fundamentals of Philosophy” by V.F. Shapovalov, Moscow “Grand” 1998.

· Philosophy. Ed. L.G. Kononovich, G.I. Medvedeva, Rostov-on-Don “Phoenix” 1996.

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Socrates is the first philosopher in the full sense of the word. History says so, but is it necessary to be famous to be a philosopher? A person ponders this question all his life. Some issues are global, others are important only for the individual and are temporary. But philosophizing shapes personality, even if a person is far from the ideas of ancient Greek thinkers.

What is philosophy

Philosophy is one of the forms of social consciousness. It is aimed at finding solutions to basic worldview issues and developing a holistic view of the structure of the world and man’s place in it. A system of views that shapes a person’s attitude towards the world and himself.

Is being a philosopher a profession or a state of mind?

To answer this question, you first need to understand who a philosopher is. This concept has a number of definitions, but let’s focus on the more understandable ones.

A philosopher is a person whose mental work is aimed at finding solutions to the issues of human life. A person who knows how to reason is able to form the concept of a new worldview. We cannot exclude the fact that a person dealing with issues of the universe must have a special mindset and feel somewhat differently than is customary in society. This is a state of mind and perception of the world, not a profession. The profession involves material rewards as equivalent to the effort expended. The philosopher’s first priority is the improvement of human life, contribution to the development of society and the state, and not the receipt of material benefits.

The origin of philosophy and the first philosopher

Philosophy, like many other sciences, came out of ancient Greece. The term philosophy consists of two parts. The first part from the word “Philia” is translated as love “love”, and the other is “Sofia”. Philosophy is the love of wisdom. Books and treatises date back to antiquity. Jaspers introduced the concept of axial time, making an attempt to separate the mythological worldview and rational thinking. The time dated by Jaspers is 800-200 BC. All the teachings of that time are distinguished by rationality and the desire to understand the root cause and basis of existence. In the beginning, philosophy was a holistic science. But as it developed, other sciences began to emerge. The structure of philosophical knowledge includes:

• ontology – the science of existence;
• epistemology - theory of knowledge;
• ethics - the study of morality and rules of behavior;
• aesthetics - the science of beauty;
• logic, which studies the laws, principles and functions of thinking;
• axiology – the doctrine of values;
• philosophical anthropology, which studies human nature and essence;
• – the science of society and the place of man in it;
• history of philosophy - a science that describes the subject and essence of philosophy as a whole.

Chronological eras of philosophy:

• ancient eastern teachings;
• ancient philosophy;
• medieval;
• renaissance and new times;
• modern.

The most famous philosophers

Among all philosophers, there are thinkers whose contribution to science was the most important:

Philosopher	Achievements
Parmenides	He lived back in the pre-Socratic period. Those around him noted his eccentricity and tendency to madness. From the time of his teachings, a poem has been preserved: “On Nature,” in which Parmenides discusses questions of existence and knowledge. He said that it is eternal and unchangeable and identifies it with thinking. Nothingness does not exist because it is impossible to think about it. Zeno of Ella is the main student of Parmenides, but his works also influenced Plato.
Aristotle	One of the main ancient Greek philosophers, whose most famous student was Alexander the Great. Aristotle went down in history as an educator thanks to his school. This is the first scientist to create a versatile philosophical system. Aristotle is the father of formal logic. The doctrine of first causes became central for the philosopher. The scientist laid down the basic concept of space and time.
Democritus	An atomist who believed that the atom is the basis of everything that exists.
Anaximander	There is little information about him. It was the student of Thales of Miletus who introduced the concept of ayperon - an infinite, limitless particle
Marcus-Aurelius	The Roman emperor is partly a stoic, preaching the ideas of humanism. He shared the philosophy of Stoicism, which showed him the path to happiness. He wrote 12 books in Greek, which he called: “Discourses about oneself.” His other work, “Meditations,” is dedicated to the inner world of philosophers.
Anselm of Canterbury	A philosopher who lived during the Middle Ages and contributed to the development of theology. Some call him the father of scholasticism. Using ontological proofs in his central work “Proslogion”, he provided indestructible evidence of the existence of God. The existence of God was proven by his very definition. God is something perfect. He creates outside of man and his world. One of the main sayings of the thinker is “I believe in order to understand.” Among his students and followers, the most famous is Thomas Aquinas. For his contribution to the development of divine teaching, Anselm was canonized, and his students continued to develop the teaching.
Spinoza	Jewish philosopher. From his youth he was fascinated by the best Jewish thinkers. For his Orthodox views and rapprochement with sectarians, he was expelled from the Jewish community. Spinoza's innovative ideas ran counter to social conservatism. The rationalist fled to The Hague, where he gave private lessons and polished lenses. In his free time he wrote works. One of his works, Ethics, became famous only after Spinoza's death from tuberculosis. In it he tried to bring together ancient Greek, medieval, Neoplatonic teachings, scholasticism and stoicism.
Arthur Schopenhauer	He became living proof that having an ugly appearance, a pessimistic view of the world, a lonely life with a mother and a cat, you can become an outstanding thinker of your time. Plato's teachings were shaped by his bright irrational ideas. Schopenhauer was one of the first thinkers to attempt to unite Western and Eastern cultures. He paid attention to human will. The famous saying “Will is a thing in itself.” The will determines existence and influences it. Schopenhauer defined three ways to live a worthy life: following art, moral asceticism or philosophy. He argued that art heals mental suffering.
Friedrich Nietzsche	Some accuse Nietzsche of being prone to fascism, which is not true. His sister was a nationalist. Friedrich himself was a skeptic and did not care about what was happening around him. He created an original teaching, calling into question existing moral principles, religion and norms. His first work, “The Birth of Tragedy,” in which he discusses moral issues, horrified the public. He introduced the concept of a superman, who stood aside from questions of morality and ethics, good and evil. Nietzsche's worldview formed the basis of existentialism
John Locke	English philosopher who left a mark in religion, theory of state and other sciences. He started as a teacher of Greek and philosophy. Meeting Ashley Cooper played an important role for him, because after emigrating to Holland, a fruitful creative period began for him. His main work is “An Essay on Human Understanding.” The "Epistle on Toleration" reflects Locke's views on the structure of the church, religion and freedom of conscience.

Among domestic thinkers, the following names can be noted: Tsiolkovsky, Vernadsky, writer Leo Tolstoy, Nikolai Lossky, Vladimir Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev.

Philosophy and philosophers will exist in any historical era, forming new concepts and complementing old ones. This is its globality and universality as a science.

Hello, dear readers!

The subject of philosophy, foundations, definition, functions, history, concepts, unsolved problems, epistemology, empiricism, rationalism and other important issues of philosophy. This is the topic for a series of articles that I prepared specifically for my modern, progressive, extremely busy readers. All articles are short and contain information in a concentrated form.

I know how we are all squeezed into tight deadlines for our projects, urgent personal matters, and various kinds of unforeseen circumstances. And with our rhythm like this, we still do not give up hope that we will still be able to find time to learn more, read more...

Especially for those who are very busy but want to know more, I have already prepared a series of articles on the topic “Contemporary Art”. This series of articles will be devoted to the topic "Philosophy: history, basic concepts and problems of philosophy."

From this, the 1st article in the series, you will learn about what philosophy studies, what basic questions of philosophy are still open.

Here is a list of all the articles in the series: Modern philosophy Classical German philosophy Russian philosophy Philosophy of the Enlightenment Philosophy of the late 19th - early 20th centuries Philosophy of the 20th century

Subject of philosophy

Subject of study of philosophy is everything that exists in the world. The goal of philosophy is not to determine the external boundaries between all components of the world, but to determine their internal connections and unity between them.

The purpose of philosophyis attracting a person to the most perfect values, the highest ideals, taking him out of the ordinary sphere, giving his life true meaning.

The main goal of philosophy- find the meaning of life and the highest principle.

Other useful articles:

Definition of philosophy

Philosophy is the science of knowledge of the world and man, of knowledge of the universal laws of development of the world and society, of knowledge and explanation of moral values ​​and the meaning of existence, of knowledge of the process of knowledge itself.

Since ancient times, philosophy has been looking for answers to the questions: “What is truth?”, “Is it possible to know the world?”, “Is consciousness or matter primary? ", "What is Man?", "Is there God? ", "Why do we live?" and others.

Word"f" philosophy" comes from the ancient Greek words phileo - love and sophia - wisdom. Philosophy literally means love of wisdom.

Sections of philosophy

Philosophy includes sections:

• Ontology or metaphysics- the doctrine of the existence of the universe;
• Epistemology- the doctrine of knowledge;
• Logic- the doctrine of thinking;
• Ethics- the doctrine of morality;
• Aesthetics- the doctrine of beauty;
• Social philosophy and philosophy of history- the doctrine of society;
• Philosophical anthropology- the doctrine of man;
• History of philosophy.

Fundamental problems of philosophy

To the fundamental problems of philosophy that have not yet been resolved include:

• problem of being— the meaning of human existence, man’s relationship to God, the idea of ​​the soul, its death and immortality;
• problem of cognition— can our thinking comprehend the world objectively and truly;
• problem of values- morality and aesthetics,
• problem of dialectics- the world is static or changing.
• the problem of the essence of space and time.

Fundamental questions of philosophy

In modern philosophy such questions remain unresolved. fundamental issues: Is spirit or matter primary? Is there a God? Is the soul immortal? Is the world infinite or finite, how does the Universe develop? What is Man, what is the hidden meaning of human history? What is truth and error? What is good and evil? and others.

Functions of philosophy

Philosophy performs the following functions:

• Worldview function- responsible for the conceptual explanation of the world;
• Methodological function- responsible for the most general methods of understanding reality;
• Prognostic function— is responsible for formulating hypotheses about trends in the development of consciousness and matter, the world and man);
• Critical function— is responsible for the principle of “questioning everything”;
• Axiological function- is responsible for assessing the object that is being studied from different points of view: moral, social, aesthetic, etc.);
• Social function- is responsible for performing a dual task - and explanation social existence, and assistance in its material and spiritual change).

In the next article we will look at the question of when and where philosophy originated. I'll tell you briefly about the history of the emergence and achievements of philosophical thought in Ancient Greece.

I hope you liked the article on the topic “ Subject of philosophy, foundations, definition, functions, history" and you will want to study more deeply this incredibly beautiful, fascinating and useful area of ​​human knowledge! I assure you, philosophy can become very useful for you, to the point that you reconsider your system of values ​​and goals.

I highly recommend these to you 2 articles on philosophy with video lectures by a modern philosopher, in which he talks about practical advice from ancient Greek philosophers that will greatly help you in life not to make unnecessary movements and useless actions:

Here is one of the lectures " How to live correctly - wise advice from the philosophers of Ancient Greece":

I wish you all inspiration, always a positive attitude and a lot of strength for all your plans!

As a result of studying the chapter, the student should: know

• the tasks that philosophy sets for itself;
• the intermediate position of philosophy between science and art;
• the connection between philosophy and wisdom;
• the nature of the influence of culture on philosophy and philosophy on culture;

be able to

• analyze the connection between philosophy and other sciences;
• identify the main sections of philosophy;
• perceive philosophy as a special branch of knowledge; own
• the ability to assimilate abstract philosophical categories;
• the ability to conduct a discussion about the meaning of philosophy and its impact on the culture of one’s era;
• the ability to critically assimilate philosophical reasoning.

Subject of philosophy

Philosophy (from ancient Greek. philia - love and sophia - wisdom; philosophy - love of wisdom) is a special form of knowledge of the world, seeking to identify the fundamental foundations of human existence and the world in which it occurs, to formulate the most general and essential characteristics of man’s relationship to nature, society and spiritual life in all its manifestations.

In short, philosophy is This is a science that studies the most common problems of man, society and nature.

Philosophy is the theoretical core worldview - systems of views on the world and the place of man, society and humanity in it, on man’s attitude towards the world and himself, as well as the basic life positions of people corresponding to these views, their ideals and principles of activity.

Philosophy arose at approximately the same time (in the 5th-4th centuries BC) in Ancient Greece, India and China. It replaced man's mythological idea of ​​the world. Sometimes the emergence of philosophy is characterized this way - “the transition from myth to logos,” i.e. a transition from a person’s explanation of the world around him not in the form of a kind of fairy tale, which was the myth (its heroes are not only people, but also fictional creatures, gods, etc.), but in the form of a reasonable, logically consistent story about the world, man and society.

The first author who called philosophy philosophy, and himself a philosopher, was, as they say, Pythagoras. However, after Pythagoras there were no works left. The word “philosopher” was used by Heraclitus, who said that “philosophers should know a lot.” The term "philosophy" first appears in Plato's dialogues. From Ancient Greece, the term spread to Western and Middle Eastern countries.

Features of philosophy as a science. Philosophy is so different from other sciences that sometimes doubts are expressed about its belonging to the sciences.

English philosopher and logician of the 20th century. B. Russell formulates this point of view more carefully. Philosophy is, he says, that unique field of knowledge that lies between science and theology (theology). Like theology, it consists of speculation about subjects about which exact knowledge has hitherto been unattainable. But, like science, it appeals to human reason rather than to authority, whether that of tradition or revelation. All definite knowledge belongs to science; all dogmas, insofar as they go beyond certain knowledge, belong to theology. But between theology and science there is a "No Man's Land" open to attack from both sides; this No Man's Land is philosophy. Almost all the questions that most interest the speculative mind are those that science cannot answer, and the self-confident answers of theologians no longer seem as convincing as in previous centuries. Is the world divided into spirit and matter, and what is spirit and what is matter? Is spirit subordinate to matter, or does it have an independent existence? Does the Universe have any unity? Is the Universe evolving towards some goal? Do natural laws really exist, or do we simply believe in them due to our inherent tendency towards order? Is man what he seems to the astronomer - a tiny lump of a mixture of carbon and water, powerlessly swarming on a small and insignificant planet? Or is the person what Hamlet thought he was? Or maybe he is both at the same time? Are there high and low ways of life, or are all ways of life only vanity? If there is a way of life that is sublime, what is it and how can we achieve it? Does goodness need to be eternal to be worthy of appreciation, or must goodness be striven for even if the universe is inevitably moving towards destruction? Is there such a thing as wisdom, or is what appears to be wisdom simply stupidity at its most refined? Such questions cannot be answered in the laboratory. Theologians have claimed to give answers to these questions, and very definite ones at that, but the very definiteness of their answers makes modern minds treat them with doubt. It is a matter of philosophy to explore these questions and seek answers to them. Philosophy tries to speak out about the same things as theology: does God exist, what role does he play in the life of the person he created, what is the meaning of human life and the purpose of man, what is human happiness, how good deeds are rewarded, etc. But philosophy speaks about all this in a language similar to the language of science, and in the course of argumentation does not refer to revelation or insight, to miracles that contradict the laws of nature, etc. Philosophy often speaks out about those things that lie beyond the boundaries of scientific knowledge, but strives not to deviate from the ideals and requirements of science.

When discussing the scientific character of philosophy, two important circumstances must be taken into account. Firstly, modern philosophy is gradually moving away from theology and moving closer to science. Modern industrial (and even more so post-industrial) society is secular, religion is separated from the state. Science is no longer required to coordinate its conclusions with religion and devote its energies to justifying theological ideas.

We can say that philosophy as a special field of knowledge in the current era lies not so much between science and theology, but between science And ( fiction) literature. It is no coincidence that in the 20th century. five outstanding philosophers received the Nobel Prize in Literature (there is no such prize in philosophy, like in mathematics), including A. Bergson, B. Russell, A. Camus and J.-P. Sartre.

Secondly, philosophy, of course, is very unique in comparison with other sciences. But nevertheless, philosophy - for all its unusualness, associated with an intermediate position between science, literature and theology - is still considered to be a science. Philosophy strives in its reasoning not to deviate from the scientific method. She tries to use clear and precise concepts, avoids as much as possible figurativeness, without which there is no literature, etc. It is also important to note that philosophy is taught in all higher education institutions. It is studied not only at social and humanities faculties, but also at physics, chemistry, biology faculties, and at technical universities. Literary theory and theology are taught to a rather narrow circle of people.

When discussing the question of whether philosophy is a science, one must also keep in mind that the existing sciences are so heterogeneous that there is still no acceptable definition of the general concept of “science”. Physics is completely different from logic, which never resorts to experience. Drowning in a mass of heterogeneous facts, biology bears little resemblance to chemistry or astronomy. Ethics, which formulates values ​​and norms, bears little resemblance to neurophysiology or human physiology. Cosmology, which is generally considered to be a part of physics, uses, unlike all other branches of the latter, the time series “was - is - will be”, which has an “arrow of time”, while in physics only the time series “earlier - later -” is used simultaneously”, which does not set the direction of time.

In addition to the natural, social and human sciences, there are also formal sciences (mathematics and logic) and so-called normative sciences (ethics, aesthetics, art history, moral theory, etc.). The results of mathematics and logic are only indirectly comparable with empirical data. These results are completely different from the conclusions of natural science. Mathematics and logic allow comparison with reality not by themselves, but only within the framework of those meaningful theories of which they are fragments. Normative sciences talk not only about what is, but also about the fact that must be what all other sciences avoid doing.

Thus, talking about the features of philosophy as spiders is only one fragment of the complex topic of the unity of the currently existing and extremely heterogeneous set of sciences. It seems that the uniqueness of philosophy is not an insurmountable obstacle to classifying it as a science.

• See: Russell B. History of Western Philosophy: in 2 volumes. M.: MIF, 1993.T. 1. pp. 7-9.