Expresses the problem of existence in its general form. Philosophical meaning of the concept of being
ONTOLOGY
Ontology- the doctrine of being
The question of the origin of being is connected with the understanding of the unity and diversity of the world. The existence of many objects, phenomena, processes and states gives rise to a philosophical problem: is all this one being, emanating from one beginning or principle, to which diversity can be reduced as to its essence, or Is there an infinite variety of types of being separate from each other, each having its own essence? Parmenides believed that being is motionless, unchanging and intelligible. Democritus developed the idea of multiple beings as atomic substances.
Ontological positions are related to the solution of questions about the existence of things, the existence of ideas (consciousness) and the existence of people. The main question of ontology is the question of the relationship of existence to consciousness: does there exist an objective reality, independent of consciousness, or is existence reduced to the content of consciousness?
Monism recognizes the unity of reality and one source of existence as the primary cause. Depending on which sphere of existence is attributed primacy - nature or spirit, philosophers are divided into materialists and idealists.
Dualism- a view that affirms the coexistence of two different, irreducible entities or substances - spiritual and material. (Descartes)
Pluralism is the view that reality consists of many independent entities that do not form absolute unity (Leibniz).
Idealistic monism sees the unity of the world in a spiritual, ideal beginning. Distinguish between objective and subjective idealism
Materialistic monism sees the unity of the world in a system of material connections. the world exists outside and independently of human consciousness. A distinction is made between dialectical (Marx) and mechanistic materialism (17th century).
Realism is the most common ontological position that recognizes an objective reality that exists outside the consciousness of the knowing subject. Realism includes objective idealism, which asserts the independent existence of spiritual reality (ideas, God, reason) (Plato, Hegel), and materialism, which asserts matter, material reality, as the primary kind of being.
Dialectical materialism- philosophical doctrine, which affirms the (ontological) primacy of matter and postulates three basic laws of its movement and development: 1) the law of unity and struggle of opposites, 2) the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, 3) the law of the negation of negation. A feature of the understanding of being in dialectical materialism is what is discarded the concept of being as such
The subjective ideal is the antipode of realism and views the world as a complex of ideas, recognizing as real only existence perceived by the consciousness of the subject (distributed in the philosophy of the New Age). J. Berkeley.
Existentialism(philosophy of existence of the 20th century) affirms the fundamental difference between the existence of man and the existence of things: man is a self-conscious and free reality (Heidegger, Jaspers. Sartre, Camus)
To understand ontological issues, philosophy uses special forms of thinking, categories - extremely broad concepts- for the purpose of considering being, existing as such, abstracting from the properties and characteristics of the existing and from its particular varieties. As a rule, such categories are revealed only through each other and are used in pairs.
The problem of existence in its most general form, extreme form expresses philosophical category being.
Non-existence - the opposite of being, non-existent, unknowable nothingness, can be considered as absolute - the absence of being as such, emptiness; or as relative - the non-existence of a certain thing. In the first case, it can be identified with the concepts of “potential being”. "One." "Tao", "meon". “other being”; in the second case, it serves to determine the boundaries of a specific existence.
Being is one of the most important categories of philosophy. She records and expresses problem of existence in its general form. The word “being” comes from the verb “to be”. But as a philosophical category, “being” appeared only when philosophical thought posed the problem of existence and began to analyze this problem. Philosophy has as its subject the world as a whole, the relationship between the material and the ideal, the place of man in society and in the world. In other words, philosophy seeks to clarify the question of existence of the world And being person. Therefore, philosophy needs a special category that captures the existence of the world, man, and consciousness.
In modern philosophical literature, two meanings of the word “being” are indicated. In the narrow sense of the word, this is an objective world that exists independently of consciousness; in the broad sense, it is everything that exists: not only matter, but also consciousness, ideas, feelings and fantasies of people. Being as an objective reality is designated by the term “matter”.
So, being is everything that exists, be it a person or an animal, nature or society, a huge Galaxy or our planet Earth, the imagination of a poet or the strict theory of a mathematician, religion or laws issued by the state. Existence has its opposite concept - non-existence. And if being is everything that exists, then non-existence is everything that is not. How do being and non-being relate to each other? This is already a completely philosophical question, and we will look at how it was resolved in the history of philosophy.
Let's start with the philosopher of the Eleatic school Parmenides. The heyday of his work occurred at the 69th Olympiad (504-501 BC). He wrote the philosophical poem “On Nature”. Since already in those days there were different approaches to solving philosophical problems, then it is not surprising that Parmenides conducts polemics with his philosophical opponents and offers his own ways of solving pressing philosophical issues. “To be or not to be at all - this is the solution to the question,” writes Parmenides. Parmenides formulates his main thesis very briefly: “There is being, but there is no non-being at all; here is the path of authenticity and it brings us closer to the truth.”
Another way is to recognize that non-existence exists. Parmenides rejects such a view; he spares no words to ridicule and shame those who recognize non-existence. Only that which exists exists, and that which does not exist does not exist. It seems that this is the only way to think about it. But let's see what consequences follow from this thesis. The main thing is that existence is devoid of movement, it does not arise and is not destroyed, it had no past and has no future, it is only in the present.
So motionless lies within the greatest fetters,
And without beginning, end, then birth and death
The true ones are thrown far into the distance by conviction.
For a reader not accustomed to philosophical reasoning, such conclusions may seem strange, to say the least, primarily because they clearly contradict the obvious facts and circumstances of our life. We constantly observe the movement, emergence and destruction of various objects and phenomena both in nature and in society. People are constantly being born and dying next to us; before our eyes, a huge state - the USSR - collapsed, and in its place several new independent states arose. And someone claims that existence is motionless.
But the philosopher following Parmenides will have his own arguments for objections of this kind. Firstly, when speaking about being, Parmenides does not mean this or that thing, but being as a whole. Secondly, he does not take into account opinions based on casual impressions. Being is an intelligible essence, and if the feelings do not say what the mind affirms, then the child should give preference to the statements of the mind. Being is an object of thought. And Parmenides has a very definite opinion on this matter:
One and the same thing is thought and that about which thought exists.
For without being, in which its expression,
You can't find thoughts 1.
Taking into account all these remarks, let us once again consider the question of being and movement. What does it mean to be in motion, to move? It means to move from one place or state to another. What is “other” for being? Nothingness. But we have already agreed that there is no non-existence. This means that being has nowhere to move, nothing to change into, which means it always only exists, only exists.
And this thesis can be defended and justified in its own way, if by being we mean only the very fact of the existence of the world, of nature. Yes, the world exists and only exists. But if we go beyond this simple and universal statement, we immediately find ourselves in a concrete world, where movement is not only sensually perceived, but also an intelligible and universal attribute of matter, substance, nature. And the ancient philosophers understood this.
Who was Parmenides' philosophical opponent? His contemporary, the Ionian philosopher from Ephesus Heraclitus(his acme also occurs at the 69th Olympiad, 504-501 BC). In contrast to Parmenides, Heraclitus focuses on movement. The world for him is a cosmos, not created by any of the gods or by any of the people, but was, is and will be an eternally living fire, flaring up in measures and extinguishing in measures. The eternity of the world, the eternity of being for Heraclitus is as undoubted as for Parmenides.
But the world of Heraclitus is in perpetual motion. And here is its significant difference from the motionless being of Parmenides. However, Heraclitus is not limited to the statement about the mobility of the world. He views movement itself as the result of the mutual transition of opposites. Being and non-being are inseparable. One thing gives rise to another, one goes into another. “The living and the dead, the awakened and the sleeping, the young and the old are one and the same, for the first disappears in the second, and the second in the first,” says Heraclitus. From the chapter devoted to the history of philosophy, it is known that ancient greek philosophers As a rule, four elements were taken as the basis of everything: earth, water, air and fire. Heraclitus held the same opinion, although he put fire in first place. However, he viewed these elements themselves not simply as coexisting, but as transforming into each other. The existence of some is determined through the transition into non-existence of others. “The death of earth is the birth of water, the death of water is the birth of air, the death of air is the birth of fire and vice versa,” said Heraclitus.
Developing materialist philosophy, later ancient materialist philosophers Leucippus(years of life unknown) and his student Democritus(about 460 - about 370 BC) tried to overcome the contradictions in the doctrine of being and developed the concept of atomism. Atoms are indivisible particles of matter. All visible bodies made up of atoms. And what separates the atoms and bodies themselves is emptiness, which is a condition for the existence of many, on the one hand, and movement, on the other.
Aristotle in “Metaphysics” characterizes the views of Democritus and Leucippus as follows: “Leucippus and his friend Democritus teach that the elements of the elements are full and empty, calling one of them being, the other non-being... That is why they say that being is no more existing than non-being, since emptiness is no less real than body. They considered these elements to be the material causes of existing things” 2.
Atomistic doctrine was accepted and developed by materialists Ancient Greece and Rome, primarily by such philosophers as Epicurus(341-270 BC) and Titus Lucretius Carus(c. 99 - c. 55 BC). Subsequently, atomism is revived in the philosophy of modern times.
However, at the end of the 5th century. BC. V ancient Greek philosophy Completely different philosophical systems—systems of idealistic philosophy—received great development. And it is quite natural that these systems present a completely different doctrine of being.
The cosmos of former philosophers, united in its materiality, was radically transformed Plato(427-347 BC). Existence itself turned out to be divided into unequal types:
H this is, first of all, the world of eternal, unchanging ideal essences, the world of ideas, a new form of existence that precedes the world of things and determines it: 2) this is the World of transient, short-lived things around us, the existence of which is flawed, this is some kind of half-being; 3) this is matter, the substance from which the universal cosmic artisan, the demiurge spiritual creator, the world soul creates things according to patterns higher being, according to the patterns of ideas.
The existence of matter, according to Plato, is rather non-existence, since it is devoid of independent existence and manifests itself as existence only in the form of things. Everything turned upside down in Plato's philosophy. Matter, identical with being among earlier philosophers, was reduced to the level of non-existence. And the existence of ideas was declared to be a truly existing being.
And yet, no matter how fantastic the world constructed by Plato is, it is also a reflection and expression of the world in which a real, historically formed and historically developing person lives. In fact, in the real socio-historical space of human existence, there is a world of ideas, this is the world of social consciousness, the existence of which is significantly different from the existence of natural and man-made material things. And, probably, one could highly appreciate Plato’s merit in highlighting the world of ideas if he had not separated it from man and transferred it to heaven.
In the course of the historical development of society, it develops spiritual production, develop and separate forms of social consciousness, which for each new generation of people appear as a special world, given from the outside and subject to mastery - the world of ideas. From this point of view, Plato's philosophy could be seen as a way of fixing this special form of being, being public consciousness.
However, the real role played by Plato's philosophy in the history of philosophy and social thought turned out to be different. Through the mediation of Neoplatonism, Plato’s philosophy of objective idealism became one of the sources Christian theology, although this theology itself opposed some elements of Platonism that ran counter to Christian dogma.
The earliest and at the same time the most significant representative of Neoplatonism was the philosopher Plotinus(about 203 - about 269). He developed Plato's doctrine of ideas and, in a certain sense, made it complete. He developed, so to speak, a system of symmetrical existence. In Plato, being is divided, as we have seen, into three parts: ideas, things and matter from which things are formed.
In the world of being Plotinus there are four types of being. The lowest is indeterminate matter, substance as such, from which things are formed (the world of things). The second type of being, a higher one, is the world of things, the world of nature that we observe. It is higher than matter, since it represents copies, albeit imperfect, of perfect ideas. The third type of being is the world of ideas. It is not given in direct perception. Ideas are intelligible entities that are accessible to the human mind due to the fact that there is a high part in the soul that is involved in the world of ideas. And finally, according to Plotinus, there is a special matter, that which constitutes the substratum of ideas. This is the fourth, highest form of being. It is she who is the container and source of everything, and it was she who was the subject of special concern for Plotinus, who invented it. This form of being, according to Plotinus, is one.
The One pours itself out, and so everything that exists is sequentially formed: the mind and the ideas contained in it, then the world soul and the souls of people, then the world of things and, finally, the emanation of the One, as it were, fades into the lowest form of existence - in material matter. Spiritual matter is something inexpressible through words that characterize other forms of being, because it is a supra-essential being. But the soul, being his emanation, strives for him as for its own. “We exist better when we are turned to him,” writes Plotinus, “and there is our good, and to be away from him means to be lonely and weaker. There the soul, alien to evil, calms down, returning to a place clean from evil. There she thinks and there she is dispassionate. There is true life, for life here - and without God - is only a trace reflecting that life. And life there is the activity of the mind... It generates beauty, generates justice, generates virtue. With this the Soul filled with God becomes pregnant, and this is the beginning and the end for it, the beginning lo- because she is from there, and the end is because the good is there, and when she arrives there, she becomes what she, in fact, was. And what is here and in the midst of this world is for her a fall, exile and loss of wings.” The soaring of the soul, freed from the shackles of this world, to its primary source, to its one and only “parent” is ecstasy. And only this can be for the soul through the knowledge of the inexpressible and unknowable in our words and in our thoughts alone.
The time when he lived and developed his philosophical views Plotinus, it was a transitional era. The old, ancient world was falling apart, a new world was emerging, feudal Europe arose. And at the same time it arose and began to become more and more widespread new religion- Christianity. The former Greek and Roman gods were gods of polytheistic religions. They symbolized elements or parts of nature and were themselves perceived as parts, elements of this nature: the gods of heaven and earth, the sea and the underworld, the volcano and the dawn, hunting and love. They lived somewhere nearby, very close, and often entered into direct relationships with people, determining their fate, helping some in war against others, etc. They were a necessary addition to nature and social life.
The monotheistic religious worldview that gained dominance had completely different gods, or rather, a completely different god. He alone was the creator of heaven and earth, the creator of plants, animals and man. It was a revolution in worldview. In addition, the legalization of Christianity and its recognition as state religion The Roman Empire gave rise to an avalanche-like process of crowding out all other views from the life of society.
The intellectual avalanche of Christianity in Western Europe has crushed all forms spiritual creativity. Philosophy has become the handmaiden of theology. And only a few, few minds of the Middle Ages allowed themselves to discuss, without completely breaking with Christianity, the philosophical problems of the existence of the world and man outside the usual form of the biblical canon.
For religious philosophy, it is fundamentally important to distinguish two forms of existence: the existence of God, timeless and spaceless, absolute, supernatural being, on the one hand, and the nature created by him, on the other. The creative and the created are the main types of being.
Being and non-being, God and man - the relationship between these concepts determines the solution to many other philosophical problems. As an example, let us cite one of the arguments of the famous Italian thinker T. Campanella ( 1568-1639), taken from his work “City of the Sun”, written in 1602. Residents of the City of the Sun believe two fundamental metaphysical principles: existence, i.e. God, and non-existence, which is the lack of being and necessary condition any physical development. From the inclination towards non-existence, says Campanella, evil and sin are born. All beings are metaphysically composed of power, wisdom and love, insofar as they have existence, and of weakness, unbelief and hatred, since they participate in non-existence. Through the former they acquire merit, through the latter they sin: either by natural sin - through weakness or ignorance, or by free and intentional sin. As we see, the definition of being and non-being serves as the basis for building a system of ethics. But, in order not to go beyond the boundaries prescribed by theology, Campanella immediately adds that everything is provided for and arranged by God, who is not involved in any non-existence. Therefore, no being sins in God, but sins outside of God. There is insufficiency within ourselves, Campanella argues, we ourselves deviate towards non-existence.
The problem of being in religious philosophy, for which the most important is always the problem of the existence of God, leads to specific difficulties. From Plotinus comes the tradition according to which God, as an absolute, cannot have positive definitions. Hence the need for negative (apophatic) theology. main idea lies here in the fact that any definitions of being, taken as definitions of nature and man, are inapplicable to the supernatural absolute. And in this case, it is quite logical to reject the definitions and interpretation of the existence of God as a supra- or super-existence. But this does not exclude or eliminate the problem of the relationship between God the creator and the world he created. In the existence of man and nature, some properties of the creator must manifest themselves, which gives grounds for the development of positive (cataphatic) theology.
But in the future, this problem arose before theologians and religious philosophers who developed questions related to the understanding of human existence, nature and the inevitable problem of the existence of God. And of course philosophical study, which claimed the free development of thought, was more or less in conflict with the official, canonical interpretation of being. Neither the subjective intention of certain philosophers to strengthen the faith, nor their transition to the ranks of clergy, saved from this. This applies both to Western European Catholic thinkers and to Russian Orthodox thinkers. As an example, let us give the reasoning S.N. Bulgakov(1871-1944), in which the dialectic of existence appears as a dialectical connection between God and his creation.
“With creation,” writes Bulgakov, “God posits being, but in non-existence, in other words, by the same act by which he posits being, he posits non-existence as its border, environment and shadow... Next to the super-existent Absolute, existence appears, in which the Absolute reveals itself as the Creator, is revealed in it, is realized in it, itself joins being, and in this sense the world is a becoming God. God exists only in the world and for the world; in an unconditional sense one cannot speak of His existence. Creating the world. God thereby plunges himself into creation, He makes Himself, as it were, a creation.”
The long-term dominance of religious ideology, the relative weakness and limited sphere of influence of materialist teachings, the lack of social need for a radical revision of views on the existence of society and man led to the fact that over a long historical period, even in materialist teachings, the existence of society was viewed idealistically, i.e. Ideas were considered primary and determining. A fundamentally different situation developed in the 40-50s. XIX century, when the foundations of dialectical materialism were developed and the basic principles of the materialist understanding of history were formulated.
That was done Karl Marx And Friedrich Engels. A new concept was introduced into philosophy: “social being.” Social existence is its own, internal basis for the existence and development of society, not identical with its natural basis. Having arisen from nature, on the basis of nature and in inextricable connection with it, society as a special formation begins to live its own, in a certain sense, supra-natural life. A new, previously absent, type of development laws is emerging - the laws of self-development of society and its material basis - material production. In the course of this production, a world of new things arises, not at all like Plato, which was created not by a spiritual creator, but by a material, but also an animated human creator, or more precisely, by humanity. In the course of its historical development, humanity creates itself and a special world of things, which Marx called second nature. Marx formulated the principles of the approach to the analysis of society in the “Preface” to the work “On the Critique of Political Economy” (1859).
“In the social production of their lives,” Marx wrote, “people enter into certain, necessary, relations independent of their will - relations of production that correspond to a certain stage of development of their material productive forces. The totality of these production relations constitutes the economic structure of society, the real basis on which the legal and political superstructure rises and to which certain forms of social consciousness correspond. The method of production of material life determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general. It is not the consciousness of people that determines their existence, but, on the contrary, their social existence determines their consciousness.”
A new view of society led to new views of human existence. Not the creation of God, as in the system of religious views, and not the creation of nature as such, as in the system of views of the old materialists, but the result of the historical development of society - this is what man is. Therefore, attempts to find the essence of man in God or in nature as such are rejected. A brief formulation of this problem was given by Marx in his Theses on Feuerbach. “...The essence of man,” Marx wrote, “is not an abstraction inherent in an individual. In its reality, it is the totality of all social relations” 2. It is not nature, but society that makes a person human. And the actual human existence of a person is possible only in society, only in a certain socio-historical environment.
So, we see that in the course of the historical development of knowledge, especially philosophical knowledge, various forms of being, both objectively real (nature, society, man) and fictional (the world of absolute essences, God), were identified and interpreted in different ways.
End XIX - beginning XX century characterized by the fact that in philosophy much attention was paid to the problems of knowledge. Epistemology took a dominant position. Moreover, teachings are developing that deny the significance of general philosophical concepts and call for discarding such fundamental philosophical concepts as matter, spirit, and being. This trend was especially noticeable in positivism.
And largely as a reaction to such claims of positivism, relatively new concepts of being are formed, which at the same time support the idea that philosophy should rise above materialism and idealism and express some kind of neutral theory. Closer examination, as a rule, revealed the idealistic nature of these philosophical theories themselves.
In the 20-30s. In Germany, two German philosophers, Nikolai Hartmann and Martin Heidegger, began to develop the problems of existence in parallel. Heidegger has already been discussed in the previous chapter, so here we turn to Hartmann's work.
Nikolay Hartman(1882-1950) wrote several books devoted to the problems of ontology, including “To the Foundations of Ontology” and “New Ways of Ontology.” The starting point of his philosophy is the assertion that everything that exists, both material and ideal, is covered by the concept of “reality.” There is no higher or lower reality, there is no primacy of ideas or matter, the reality of matter is no less and no more reality than the reality of ideas, the reality of spirit. Reality, Hartmann said, leaves a place for action (literally, a place for play) for spirit and matter, for the world and God. But by making such statements, Hartmann removes the question of the origin of consciousness, the emergence of the idea of God, and the primacy of the material or spiritual. He takes everything as given and builds his own concept of being, his ontology.
N. Hartmann introduces the concept of “cut of being, cut of reality.” A cut is a kind of invisible boundary that separates areas or layers of existence, but, like any boundary, it not only separates, but also connects these areas.
The first cut is between the physical and the mental, between living nature and the spiritual world in its broad sense. There is a chasm in the structure of existence. But here is also its most important mystery: after all, this cut passes through a person without cutting him.
The second cut is between inanimate and living nature. Here lies another mystery of existence: how did living things emerge from nonliving things?
The third cut is within the realm of the spiritual. He separates the psychic and the spiritual itself.
Thus, thanks to the presence of these cuts, all of existence, all of reality, according to N. Hartmann, can be represented in the form of a four-layer structure:
| SPIRITUAL | Exist outside of space | Exist in time |
| III section | ||
| MENTAL | ||
| I cut | Exist in space | |
| LIVE NATURE | ||
| II incision | ||
| INANIMATE NATURE |
The two layers below the first cut exist in both time and space. The two layers above the first cut exist only in time. N. Hartmann needs the third cut, apparently, in order to overcome the psychologism of some philosophical concepts. Spiritual existence, according to Hartmann, is not identical to mental existence. It manifests itself in three forms, in three modes: as personal, as objective, and as the objectified existence of the spirit.
Only the personal spirit can love and hate, only it bears responsibility, guilt, merit. Only he has consciousness, will, self-awareness.
Only the objective spirit is the bearer of history in the strict and primary sense.
Only the objectified spirit grows into the timeless ideal, the supra-historical.
This is, in the most general terms, the concept of being developed by N. Hartmann. In general, this is undoubtedly an objectively idealistic theory. But its consistency, wide coverage of existence itself and focus on solving some problems that are truly significant for science attracted the attention of many scientists to it.
Objective reality is fixed in philosophy using the category “matter”. We will consider being as matter in the next chapter.
At a certain stage in the development of nature, at least on our planet, a person arises, a society arises. The existence of society and the existence of man will be the subject of consideration in other chapters of this book. However, as we have already noted, both in the existence of man and in the existence of society there is a special part or a special side of their existence: consciousness, spiritual activity, spiritual production. These very important forms of being will be discussed in chapters characterizing human consciousness and the consciousness of society. Thus, familiarity with the subsequent chapters of this book will enrich the understanding of the existence of the world, society and man and expand the range of concepts necessary for the formation of a worldview.
Related information.
1. Questions: “Does the world exist by itself or does it exist from God? What lies behind the changes taking place in the world? What are the basic laws and driving forces of its development? Refer to…
a) philosophical anthropology; c) ontologies;
b) epistemology; d) social philosophy.
2. The problem of existence in its general form is expressed by the philosophical category...
a) essence; c) being;
b) existence; d) existence.
3. The concept of “being” was introduced into philosophy:
a) Democritus; c) Aristotle;
b) Parmenides; d) Pythagoras.
4. A form of being that does not have its own essence and exists only as the interaction of other forms is called...
a) consciousness; c) substance;
b) virtuality; d) matter.
5. Mathematical theorems and laws of formal logic have _____ existence.
a) objective-ideal; c) subjective-ideal;
b) material; d) virtual.
6. The identification of being as an “all-encompassing reality” - and substance - as the basis of the universe - is observed in philosophy...
a) New Time; c) Antiquity;
b) Middle Ages; d) Renaissance.
7. Thesis: “Being is, and there is only being; there is no non-existence, and it is impossible to think of it,” expressed...
a) Protagoras; c) Pythagoras;
b) Parmenides; d) Hegel.
8. Objective reality, given to us in sensations, according to V.I. Lenin, is called...
a) the world; c) nature;
b) the Universe; d) matter.
9. Physical vacuum, elementary particles, fields, atoms, molecules, planets, stars, the Universe belong to...
a) biological systems; V) social systems;
b) systems of inanimate nature; d) virtual systems.
10. In the formation of the modern scientific picture of the world, a prominent place belongs to __________, which proves nature’s ability to self-organize and self-order.
a) synergetics; c) apologetics;
b) eclecticism; d) dialectics.
11. A form of being that characterizes the extension, structure of any material systems, is denoted by the concept:
a) time; c) matter;
b) space; d) movement.
12. The substantial concept of space-time is characterized by:
a) space and time are connected with each other and with matter;
b) space and time are a priori forms of sensibility of the knowing subject;
c) space and time are the product of a spiritual, non-human principle;
d) space and time are not connected with each other and with matter.
13. The form of being that expresses the duration and sequence of changes in the states of material objects is called...
a) movement; c) time;
b) space; d) development.
14. A natural scientific justification for the connection between matter, motion, space and time is given...
a) the theory of relativity; c) classical physics;
b) synergy; d) physicalism.
15. The idea of a four-dimensional space-time continuum was first expressed...
a) T. Kalutsey; c) O. Klein;
b) A. Einstein; d) I. Newton.
16. The philosophical theory about the universality of movement and development of all things is called:
a) synergy; c) dialectics;
b) socionics; d) metaphysics.
17. Synergetics is:
a) the doctrine of the development of knowledge, society and man; c) speculative philosophy of nature.
b) theory of self-organization of complex systems; d) the doctrine of the supersensible foundations of existence;
18. The concept of “measure” is associated with law:
a) mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;
b) transformation and conservation of energy;
c) interpenetration of opposites;
d) negation of negation.
19. According to dialectics, the source of development is...
a) the desire to establish balance;
b) external influence on the object;
c) any change to the object;
d) resolution of internal contradictions.
20. From point of view dialectical materialism, laws of dialectics...
a) there are theoretical constructs that do not reveal themselves in objective reality;
b) have a universal character;
c) reflect the self-development of the absolute spirit;
d) are realized only in living nature.
21. The inherent ability of a person to purposefully and generally reproduce reality in an ideal form is designated by the concept...
a) sensation; c) consciousness;
b) reason; d) introspection.
22. The identification and evaluation of oneself as a thinking, feeling and acting being is:
a) self-awareness; c) worldview;
b) attitude; d) judgment.
23. Unconscious and uncontrolled by human consciousness mental processes and phenomena are called -
a) emotions; c) unconscious;
b) Eros; d) Thanatos.
24. The mental activity of animals differs from the mental activity of humans in that it:
a) serves as a regulator of adaptive behavior; c) is of a social nature;
b) due to biological laws; d) aims to transform the world.
25. From the point of view of representatives of psychoanalysis, the basis human culture is…
a) conscious forms of transformative human activity;
b) conflict between human biological nature and the demands of society;
c) the process of transforming a person’s social instinct into socially acceptable forms of activity;
d) the spiritual essence of a person, manifested in creativity.
26. The basic mental structures common to all humanity were called by Jung K.G.:
a) stereotypes; c) complexes;
b) algorithms; d) archetypes.
27. When considering consciousness from the point of view of its connection with the material carrier, a substitution of the philosophical and ____________ view of consciousness often occurs.
a) ordinary; c) aesthetic;
b) mythological; d) natural science.
28. The main feature of consciousness from the point of view of phenomenology is:
a) intentionality; c) ideality;
b) materiality; d) subjectivity.
29. Creativity of consciousness is expressed in...
a) the ability to create something new; c) lack of meaning in actions;
b) lack of ability to create something new; d) giving meaning to an object of consciousness.
30. The Christian understanding of the meaning of life lies in...
a) transformation of the world; c) salvation of the soul;
b) accumulation of knowledge; d) material enrichment.
31. Man lives in two worlds: natural and...
a) aesthetic; c) ethnic;
b) class; d) social.
32. From the point of view of existentialism, a person thinks about the meaning of life in...
a) state of intoxication; c) when turning to faith;
b) out of boredom; d) in a borderline situation.
33. The concept of existence was introduced to mean:
a) the existence of things and processes; c) a specifically human way of being;
b) virtual reality; d) the existence of nature.
34. In the philosophy of existentialism, the true way of existence is:
a) a person’s immersion in the world of things; c) teaching the principles of “wise life”;
b) being in the face of death; d) following the universal cosmic law.
35. The meaning of an individual’s life is not to save the soul and serve God, but to serve society, they argued:
a) Plato, Hegel, Marxists; c) Camus, Sartre, Jaspers;
b) Lyotard, Derrida, Ricoeur; d) Tertullian, Augustine, Aquinas.
36. The doctrine of man as a social being was developed in philosophy:
a) creationism; c) existentialism;
b) positivism; d) Marxism.
37. The question of the meaning of life is generated by thinking about whether life is worth living if every person...
a) vicious; c) unspiritual;
b) ugly; d) mortal.
38. Personality as a subject of social relations is characterized...
a) activity; c) objectivity;
b) collectivity; d) reversibility.
39. Personality as a special individual entity became the object of philosophical analysis during the period...
a) Renaissance; c) New time;
b) Middle Ages; d) Antiquity.
40. The article by F. Engels “The Role of Labor in the Process of Transformation of Ape into Man” outlines the so-called __________ theory of the origin of man, consciousness, and language.
a) theological; c) mutagenic;
b) labor; d) naturalistic.
41. Comprehension by consciousness of the diverse aspects and connections of existence is:
a) initiation; c) practice;
b) cognition; d) creativity.
42. The collective and individual carrier of cognitive activity is called _________ cognition:
a) subject; c) purpose;
b) means; d) object;
43. The result of the cognition process, presented as a set of information about something, is:
a) wisdom; c) truth;
b) intelligence; d) knowledge.
44. Deliberate distortion of reality by a subject is interpreted as...
a) explanation; c) lie;
b) delusion; d) truth.
45. Misconception is usually understood as:
a) dependence on other people’s opinions; c) limited knowledge;
b) deliberate distortion of information; d) discrepancy between knowledge and reality.
46. Only practice is the goal, source and criterion of knowledge and creativity, representatives argued:
a) Marxism; c) solipsism;
b) Thomism; d) existentialism.
47. According to representatives of _________, “knowledge about things is changeable and fluid, and therefore every thing can be said in two ways and in the opposite way.”
a) skepticism; c) agnosticism;
b) epistemological optimism; d) dogmatism.
48. The position of agnosticism is presented in the doctrine:
a) Descartes R.; c) Aristotle;
b) Kant I.; d) Bacon F.
49. Establish a correspondence between the concepts of truth and their basic provisions:
1. “True knowledge is that which has good consequences for human life and which can be successfully applied in practice.”
2. Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to objective reality.
3. Truth is the consistency of knowledge with a more general, encompassing system of knowledge.
A. Coherent
B. Pragmatic
S. Korrespondenskaya
50. The main difference between scientific and non-scientific scientific knowledge is...
a) objectivity; c) theoretical;
b) rationality; d) systematic.
51. The main methods of empirical research are... (2 correct answers)
a) scientific observation; d) interpretation;
b) description of the object; e) formalization;
c) axiomatic method; e) experiment.
52. The main forms of theoretical knowledge include...(3 correct answers)
a) problem; c) law;
b) hypothesis; d) convention;
d) observation.
53. Ideas and concepts acting on behalf of science, imitating its features, but not meeting the standards of scientificity, refer to:
a) philosophy; c) pseudoscience;
b) parascience; d) paradigm.
54. The philosophical and ideological position of a negative attitude towards science and technology due to their hostility to man and culture is called:
a) anti-scientism; c) scientism;
b) humanism; d) nihilism.
55. The process of replacing the old disciplinary matrix with a new paradigm is called...
a) scientific revolution; c) demarcation;
b) verification; d) proliferation.
56. An attempt to distinguish between scientific and non-scientific knowledge, to determine the boundaries of the field of scientific knowledge is called a problem...
a) logic; c) demarcation;
b) idealization; d) modernization.
57. Determining the specifics of scientific knowledge, K. Popper put forward the principle...
a) falsification; c) unification;
b) codification; d) verification.
58. Modern Western concepts of scientific revolutions - as a change of paradigms or research programs - were developed...
a) Kuhn T. and Lakatos I.; c) Lyotard J. and Derrida J.;
b) Lenin V.I. and Plekhanov G.V.; d) Gadamer G. and Heidegger M.
59. Representative modern philosophy science, which believes that the growth of scientific knowledge occurs as a result of proliferation (reproduction) of theories, hypotheses, is...
a) P. Feyerabend; c) K. Popper;
b) I. Lakatos; d) O. Kont.
60. A spiritual and material formation relatively independent from nature, generated by various forms of joint human activity, is called...
a) the state; c) society;
b) noosphere; d) formation.
61. The idea of a linear orientation of social life arose in:
a) New time; in the Middle Ages;
b) Renaissance; d) Antiquity.
62. The philosopher who proposed the concept of the “axial era” to explain the unity of world history is:
a) Engels F.; c) Jaspers K.;
b) Toynbee A.; d) Hobbes T.
63. From the point of view of A. Toynbee, civilization can avoid destruction if...
a) a high level will be reached technical development;
b) unity in spirit will be achieved;
c) socio-economic problems will be resolved;
d) environmental problems will be solved.
64. Match the name of the philosopher and the concept that characterizes his concept of the development of society.
1. K. Jaspers A. World Mind
2. G.F. V. Hegel V. Socio-economic formation
3. K. Marx S. “Axial Time”
65. _________ argued that civilization is the “death of culture.”
a) O. Spegler; c) D. Vico;
b) K. Jaspers; d) F. Engels.
66. Applying materialist philosophy to the field of history, K. Marx and F. Engels were the creators of:
a) vulgar materialism; c) natural scientific materialism;
b) historical materialism; d) metaphysical materialism.
67. The growing interdependence of various countries, regions, economic and cultural integration of humanity is expressed in the concept:
a) ideologization; c) globalization;
b) informatization; d) technologization.
68. The international public organization, created in 1968 to analyze the most pressing problems of our time, was named:
a) London Club; c) Heidelberg Club;
b) Club of Rome; d) Paris Club.
69. Today, humanity has two options: either continue to conquer the world around us, sharing the “fate of the dinosaurs,” or survive by conquering...
a) other people; c) weak countries and peoples;
b) nature; d) yourself, your aggressiveness and selfishness.
70. Global problems associated with an excessive increase in the Earth's population, deteriorating public health, aging populations in developed countries, high birth rates in underdeveloped countries are called….
a) political; c) environmental;
b) demographic; d) economic.
71. Problems related to disarmament, prevention of thermonuclear war, world social and economic development are classified as ___________ problems.
a) intersocial; c) natural-social;
b) anthropo-social; d) far-fetched.
72. Post-industrial society in the context of the “information revolution” is characterized by the concept...
a) “information society”; c) “social dynamics”;
b) “ideal type of society”; d) “world-historical spirit.”
73. The basis of the philosophical picture of the world is the solution to the problem...
a) knowledge; c) being;
b) values; d) science.
74. The fundamental physical theory created at the beginning of the twentieth century to explain micro-movements, which underlies the modern scientific picture of the world, is called...
a) quantum mechanics; c) microelectronics;
b) minimalism; d) organic chemistry.
| 1. | |||
| 2. | |||
| 3. |
The problem of hunger and poverty in backward countries...(belongs to the group of problems of interstate
character)
Method problem scientific knowledge was staged in philosophy (Modern times)
The problem of separating scientific knowledge from non-scientific knowledge was solved in (Neopositivism)
The problem of the development of science has become the subject of special research in... (Postpositivism)
The problem of the meaning of life and death was one of the central ones in philosophy (A. Schopenhauer)
The problem of existence in its general form is expressed by the philosophical category... (“existence”)
Problems of the development of science are central to philosophy (Postpositivism)
Problems of the theory of knowledge and the search for a scientific method are becoming central in European
philosophy (XIII century - in test answers) 17th century.
Problems of language, science, logic occupy a central place in... (analytical philosophy)
Problems solved by philosophy...(have a universal, ultimate character)
Space is the order of things, the concept says (relational)
Space and time are beings (Forms)
Space and time are called the most important forms of existence, depending on movement and
interactions between representatives of materialism (Dialectical)
The opposition of knowledge and faith, the assertion of their incompatibility in the Middle Ages is associated with the name.
(Tertullian)
Extension, three-dimensionality, isotropy, reversibility are considered properties...(of space)
The process of the ascending development of humanity, implying a qualitative renewal of social
life is called (Progress)
The process of constructing in the human mind holistic images of objects, situations, events, people and their
relationships currently acting on his senses are qualified as
(Perception)
The process of transformation of the biological into the social is called in psychoanalysis:
(Sublimation)
The process of human formation from the original ancestral species to Homo sapiens is called...
(Anthropogenesis)
Five rational proofs for the existence of God have been given. (Thomas Aquinas)
Development is......(irreversible qualitative change in objects)
The development of physics in the 20th century led to the need to recognize the scientific significance of probabilistic
statistical laws (Quantum)
Personal development presupposes the formation of: (Self-awareness) The development of sciences as a paradigm shift, justified (T. Kuhn) Development... (inherent in nature, society and consciousness)
The section of philosophy in which the possibilities and laws of knowledge are studied is called (Epistemology)
The section of philosophy that studies the nature and general prerequisites of knowledge, the relationship of knowledge to reality and the conditions of its truth is called (Epistemology). Various studies of the future states of society are called ... (futurology) Developing new strategies for the relationship between man and nature in modern conditions, philosophy
performs a (practical) function
By developing certain ideas about values, forming a social ideal, philosophy
performs a function (Axiological)
The development of “maieutics” as a way to achieve truth is associated with the name (Socrates)
Development of the problem of the ideal in the Soviet philosophical thought associated with names. (E V. Ilyenkova
and D.I. Dubrovsky)
The development of the problem of intentionality of consciousness is a merit... (E. Husserl)
The spread of Marxism in Russia is associated with the names (G. Plekhanov and V. Lenin)
Considering the world as a hierarchy of complex objects, revealing their integrity, requires the principle
(Systems)
The rational component of any type of worldview is called...(theory)
Implementing a personal approach to understanding the problems of existence, philosophy appears as
(Psychology)
Regulating the relationship between society and the environment, both natural and social,
is a function of (Culture)
The result of the cognition process, which appears as a set of information about something, is: (Knowledge)
The result of creative activity, distinguished by its fundamental novelty, is called:
(Innovation)
The religious picture of the world is built primarily on the basis of... (holy scripture)
Religious values are expressed in: (Commandments)
“Religion exists insofar as God exists and his creation man, who feels
presence of the Creator,” declare (Theists)
The relational concept of space and time is confirmed in...(the theory of relativity
A. Einstein)
The decisive role of technology in social development is recognized by supporters...(technological
determinism)
The solution to the question of the meaning of life is connected with the function of philosophy (Worldview)
Founder of irrational philosophy and philosophy of life in the 19th century
considered... (S. Kierkegaard)
The founder of liberalism in modern philosophy is... (John Locke)
The founder of German classical philosophy is (I. Kant)
The role of philosophy in scientific knowledge comes down to... (heuristic function in scientific knowledge)
The Russian idea from the point of view of Vl. Solovyov is... (the idea of national destiny: “this is not what people think about themselves in time, but what God thinks about them in Eternity”)
Russian philosopher, the central themes of whose work were problems of freedom, personality and
creativity: (N. Berdyaev)
He called himself a “Knight of the Free Spirit.” ..(N.A.Berdyaev)
From the position of consciousness is a kingdom of ideas, feelings, will, independent of material existence,
capable of creating and constructing reality (Idealism)
From the point of view, engineering and technology play a decisive role in the development of society:
From the point of view of dialectics, truth is (Process of knowledge development)
From the point of view of dialectics, the source of development is: (Internal contradictions)
From the point of view of dialectical materialism, the laws of dialectics (have a universal character)
From the point of view of the idea of progress, established in the 18th century, savagery and barbarism are replaced by
(Civilization)
From the point of view of religious consciousness, the meaning of life lies in: (Rescue)
From the point of view, engineering and technology play a decisive role in the development of society:
(Technological determinism)
The greatest value in philosophy is. ..(true knowledge about the world)
The earliest world religion is. ..(Buddhism)
Freedom as the basic principle of human existence was justified in:
(Existentialism)
Freedom presupposes responsibility both for one’s life, but also for everything that happens in the world from the point of view
view: (Existentialism)
Freedom is a condition for creativity and personality formation in philosophy (N. Berdyaeva)
Space and time are called properties of individual consciousness, not material objects.
(Subjective idealists)
The connection between the properties of the Universe and human existence is fixed in principle. (Anthropnom)
The connection between events, phenomena and their sides, which is objective, necessary,
significant, recurring and persistent in nature, is called (Law)
Sensualism is a doctrine directly related to: (Empiricism)
A system of supra-biological programs of human life, providing
reproduction and change in social life is called. ..(culture)
Systematic philosophical study of the phenomenon of technology began in. ..(late X1X-start XX
A systemically rationalized worldview that has a national and personal character -
(Philosophy)
The skepticism of Renaissance thinkers was directed against (Scholastics)
The word "dialectic" for art argue first used. ..(Socrates)
The word denotes the established way of thinking, research methods, in relation to
modern science (Paradigm)
The meaning of an individual’s life is not to save the soul and serve God, but to serve society.” -
proved... (Plato, Hegel, Marxists)
The meaning of human life, according to the Stoics, consists... .(skills courageously And worthy submit
The problem of existence in its most general, ultimate form is expressed by the philosophical category “being”.
The internal ordering of a set of interconnected elements is called system.
Negation in dialectics is the transition of a system from one state to another, accompanied by the preservation of some elements of the old state.
"intentionality".
The social form of cognition that accompanies a person throughout his entire history is play cognition.
Pre-scientific knowledge is defined as “paleothinking” or ethnoscience.
According to theory P. Feyerabend, the growth of scientific knowledge occurs in the process proliferation of ideas.
First time term "civil society" used in philosophy Aristotle.
The main goal of philosophy– teach people to live correctly in accordance with the principles of freedom, justice and philanthropy (humanism).
Aesthetics- philosophical doctrine of beauty.
The critical function of philosophy is expressed in the desire to “question everything.”
Science and philosophy treat truth as the highest value. Only in science and philosophy the goal of activity is truth in itself.
The central problem of the German classical philosophy is problem of identity of subject and object, consciousness and being.
Characteristic philosophy Russian idealistic philosophy is anthropocentrism.
A concept that is opposite in meaning to understand "true" is "misconception"
According to the principle of verifiability, a sign of scientific knowledge is the possibility of its reduction to protocol sentences.
Secularization– a form of emancipation (liberation) from religious influence in all spheres of social life.
In modern scientific literature under technology in a broad sense the words are understood any means and methods of activity created by man to achieve certain goals.
According to irrationalism, the merging of the individual Self and the world is possible as compassion.
One of the manifestations of human internal freedom in philosophy is considered to be humility.
The ability of consciousness to exhibit active, selective aspiration towards objects is called "intentionality».
Family is primary social group, since it unites close relatives, and a social institution, since it determines the rules and norms of human behavior.
Transformative function of culture is to use it to change the world around a person.
Epistemology explores general principles, forms and methods of knowledge.
The basic principles of existence that determine the structure of the world are studied ontology.
Axiology is the doctrine of values, their formation and hierarchy.
Monism- a philosophical doctrine that takes as the basis of everything
existing single beginning. Materialists is considered such a beginning matter. Idealists spirit is considered to be the single source of all phenomena, idea.
Descartes' teaching about a substance has a character dualism– the principle according to which material and spiritual substances are equal in rights and independent of each other.
Indeterminism is a doctrine that denies conditionality, interconnection and causation.
The universal conditionality of phenomena is affirmed principle of determinism
The relationship of being and non-being is a problem ontologies.
Word there is a sign of a concept, a form of its expression.
A form of thinking that identifies and records the general, essential properties and relationships of objects is called concept.
Eschatology- religious teaching about the ultimate destinies of the world and man.
Chapter philosophical knowledge, the subject of which are general patterns and trends of scientific knowledge, is called epistemology
Scientific observation– this is a purposeful and specially organized perception of phenomena, which is always theoretically loaded.
The initial step of scientific research is problem formulation.
Kun T. believed that the stage of normal science represents the activities of scientists within the framework of the accepted paradigm.
A change of paradigms in science, according to the concept of T. Kuhn, is a revolution that offers a new paradigm that is incommensurable with the previous one.
The problem of the meaning of life arises as a result of a person’s awareness of his own mortality.
In the statement of Socrates “I intend to devote the rest of my life to clarifying only one question - why people, knowing how to act well, for the good, still act badly, to their own detriment” is formulated the problem of freedom.
Modern culture goes beyond the local, that is, local, national cultures and acquires global, unified character.
Classical understanding freedom suggests a connection with necessity.
The thesis “Science is the plague of the 20th century” expresses the meaning of the position anti-scientism.
The concept " post-industrial society"characterizes a certain stage of development in the theory proposed by supporters of the stage theory (W. Rostow, R. Aron, D. Bell).
At the end of the 19th century, the emergence of philosophy of technology as a relatively independent field of study.
Analytical philosophy– a direction of neopositivism, which reduces philosophy to the analysis of the use of linguistic means and expressions. The founders are B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein.
Sensualists believe that all knowledge is produced on the basis sensations, therefore, sensory knowledge is reliable.
Denial of the possibility of reliable knowledge of the essence of material systems is a distinctive trait of agnosticism. K. Popper is the author of the concept growth of knowledge.
Emergence engineering activities associated with the emergence manufacturing and machine production.