Vedic mythology. Mythical creatures of the ancient Indians State of the “Western Wall”

Vedic (or Vedic) mythology, a set of mythological ideas of the Vedic Aryans (who invaded northwestern India in the 2nd millennium BC and gradually settled in the eastern and southern directions);

Vedic mythology is usually understood as the mythological ideas of the Aryans during the period of creation of the Vedas, and sometimes also the period of creation, prose commentaries on the Vedas, and Upanishads, secret teachings of a philosophical and religious nature, genetically related to the Vedas, but reflecting, in fact, a different cultural tradition; Chronologically, Vedic mythology refers to the era between the middle of the 2nd and the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., when the primitive communal structure of Vedic society was already at the stage of decomposition and a way of life was gradually formed that was characteristic of military democracy.

Sources of Vedic mythology: four ancient collections of the Vedas; brahmanas to the corresponding Vedas (valuable information about the ritual, interpretation of its hidden meaning and symbolism, a number of myths and mythologized legends); Aranyakas, texts associated with Brahmins; Upanishads. These sources belong to the class of shruti - “heard” (i.e. revelation). Vedic mythology was transmitted orally, and the “divine” nature of the texts corresponded to the special role of speech and memory, opposing oblivion and inarticulate chaos. Texts - "memorized" (going back to authorities) include sutras that deal with sacrifices, household rites, mythologized legislation, etc. Some information about Vedic mythology can be extracted from later Hindu texts, genetically related to the Vedic tradition, and even from Buddhist texts. In this sense, even late Hindu texts, rituals, visual arts, along with Vedic archeology and linguistic evidence (primarily with a comparative historical interpretation of them: etymology, toponomastics, etc.) can be considered as indirect sources of Vedic mythology. IN Lately Another source has been added - linguistic data on the presence of the Indo-Aryans in the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the Middle East.

Origins of Vedic mythology lie in mythological and religious ideas Indo-European tribes of an earlier time (at least the 3rd millennium BC), to one degree or another modified in the living conditions of the Vedic Aryans. This can be judged by the coincidence of words denoting a number of the most important religious and mythological concepts and names in Vedic and other Indo-European languages. Characteristic, in particular, is the preservation of a number of archaisms in marginal areas (for example, in Vedic and Celto-Italic). Another series of correspondences suggests later cultural and linguistic communities, but still within the framework of the pan-Indo-European tradition (cf. Greco-Indo-Iranian parallels).
A comparison of the data of Vedic mythology in their linguistic expression with the facts of other Indo-European traditions indicates the exceptional archaic nature of the original elements of Vedic mythology (which explains the special role of Vedic mythology in the reconstruction of ancient Indo-European ideas) and the deducibility of most of the elements of Vedic mythology from the general Indo-European mythological and linguistic fund. Indo-European correspondences indicate, for example, the Indo-European origins of such Vedic concepts as “god” (devá-), “immortal” (amŕta-), “faith” (śraddhá), “king” (rājan-), “priest” (brahmán), etc., such mythological names as Dyaus-pitar, Ushas, ​​Parjanya, Pushan, Varuna, Maruts, Yama, Ahi Budhnya, etc.
Even more obvious are the connections between Vedic mythology and ancient Iranian mythology, which make it possible to reliably reconstruct the core of a single Indo-Iranian pantheon, some common mythological motifs, similar features of ritual (including priestly organization) and the main elements of the original religious-mythological concept, which differs from other ancient Indo-European traditions. The Indo-Iranian origins of Vedic mythology are evidenced by such concepts as: Ved. ásura- - Avest. ahura-, one of the two main classes of mythological characters; Ved. átharvan- - Avest. aθaurvan-, äθravan-, names of priests; Ved. ksatrá- - Avest. xšaθra-, the name of one of the groups in the social hierarchy; Ved. yajñá - Avest. уаsna- - “sacrifice”; Ved. barhis - “sacrificial straw” - Avest. Barsman; Ved. soma- - Avest. haoma-, and a drink that produces an ecstatic state; Ved. rtá - “cosmic law” - Avest. aša - and others. The Vedas testify to the correspondence between the names of mythological characters. Mitra - Avest. Miθra-; Ved. Vrtrahán-, epithet of Indra (literally “killer of Vritra”) - Avest. Vrθragna-; Ved. Yamá and his father Vivásvant- - Avest. Yima- and his father Vivahvant-; Ved. Vāta- - Avest. Vāta-; Ved. Vāyú- - Avest. Vāyu-; Ved. Apā Nápāt - Avest. Apãm Napā; Ved. Tritá-Aptyá- - Avest. Θrita-Aθwya-; Ved. Nāsatya- - Avest. Nā́ηhaiθya-; Ved. Bhaga- - Avest. baγa-, other Persian baga - “god”, “lord”; Ved. Aryamán- - Avest. airyaman-, pers. ērmān - “guest”, etc. It is possible that part of these comparisons is explained by the borrowing of a number of Vedic words and names of mythological content by the ancient Iranian tribes in the conditions of bilateral connections between the Iranian tribes and the Vedic ones in eastern Iran (as some scientists believe). Nevertheless, the unity of Indo-Iranian mythology remains beyond any doubt. The differences between Vedic and ancient Iranian mythology help clarify the problem of chronology and the direction of evolution of the once unified system.
Since documents from the archives of Boghazkoy, Tel Amarna, Mitanni, Nuzi, Alalakh indicate the presence of Aryans close to the Vedic tribes in Western Asia in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. BC - these data, to a certain extent, can also be used to characterize the “Proto-Indo-Aryan” mythology, which coincided with the early V. m. or very close to it.
Vedic mythology also reveals some similarities with the religious and mythological ideas of the ancient culture of the Indus Valley (Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa), which existed before the invasion of the Vedic Aryans and, possibly, destroyed by them. It is possible that we are talking about borrowing. However, taking into account the chronology of these innovations, one can also think about their later origin under the influence of contacts with the autochthonous population of India further to the south and east: the image of the world tree in the form of ashwattha found in Vedic mythology, many-headed or many-faced gods, the Great Goddess, a composition of birds and snakes, Rudra-, in part, some - swastika, linga, yoni, etc., individual ideas about mythologized space and time, planets, etc. find analogies not only in the data of the Indus Valley civilization (see Proto-Indian mythology) , but also in other traditions of this area.
Mainstream sources, as a rule, do not contain myths in their pure form. Only in relatively few cases are myths presented in sufficient detail; more often we have to deal with fragments or even with individual disparate motifs, names and words that are fragments of the myth or the result of its collapse. Therefore, for a complete judgment about V. m., a certain reconstruction of the totality of myths and their ordering (hierarchization) is necessary. Nevertheless, we can speak with confidence about the universality of the mythological principle in the Vedic tradition (the word veda itself - cf. Russian “to know”, “witchcraft” - denoted the entire area of ​​sacred mythologized knowledge).

It is customary to classify 33 gods as the highest (divine) level of Vedic mythology (333 in some Brahmanas; in some sources - 3306, 3339), and this number itself is an essential constant to which the number of characters is “adjusted”. These 33 gods are divided into terrestrial, atmospheric (intermediate) and celestial.
Sometimes the gods are divided into groups (8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, 12 Adityas and 2 more deities - Ashvins or Dyaus and Prithivi, or Indra and Prajapati, etc.), opposed according to the same threefold principle. Despite individual deviations in the composition of the groups, the core remains stable: Prithivi, Agni, Brihaspati, Soma, Saraswati and others are earthly; Indra, Trita Aptya, Apam Napat, Matarishvan, Ahi Budhnya, Aja Ekapad, Rudra, Maruts, Vayu, Vata, Parjanya, Apas - atmospheric; Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra and other Adityas, Surya, Savitar, Pushan, Vishnu, Vivasvat, Ushas, ​​Ashwins are heavenly. Later texts offer other interpretations of the same groups: Vasu -, earth, wind, air space, sky, moon, stars; rudras - 10 vital organs and; aditya - 12 months of the year (Brihad.-up. III 9, 1-5). Such divisions reflect attempts to establish correspondences between the archaic cosmological schemes of the tripartite universe and the composition of the pantheon (and later - the basic elements of the macro- and microcosm).
Another classification of gods is based on the distinction between three social functions: magical-legal (Adityas and, above all, Varuna and Mitra - priests), military (Indra and Maruts - warriors), fertility (Ashvins - producers of material wealth). This classification is supported by textual sequences in which Varuna and Mitra are followed by Indra and the Maruts, Ashwins, Pushans, etc. Chronological-stage differences in the synchronic plan are realized as oppositions on the basis of activity - inactivity and relevance - irrelevance, which makes it possible to differentiate Dyaus and Prithivi from Varuna and Mitra, the latter from Indra, etc. The transition to Hinduism is associated with a sharp increase in the importance of the triad Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva. Finally, the characters of the Vedic pantheon form numerous other groups - sometimes stable and indecomposable, sometimes more or less random. In some cases, such groupings are clearly functional and currently conscious, in others they are traditional and can be derived only from the previous state.
One of the most significant oppositions within the pantheon separates the virgin gods from the heavenly divine characters with witchcraft powers (Maya); The latter include Adityas (primarily Varuna and Mitra), Agni, etc. The paired groups have a somewhat different character. Among them are the Ashvins, two divine twins who never appear separately and form a special mythological unit; Mitra - Varuna, very often forming a pair with a clear specificity of its constituent elements within the seven-membered association of Adityas (at the same time, Mitra and especially Varuna often appear separately or even in other combinations, cf. Indra - Varuna), or Dyaus - Prithivi; situational associations such as Indra - Agni, Indra - Soma, Indra - Vishnu, Indra - Pushan, Agni - Soma, Agni - Parjanya, Parjanya - Vata, Soma - Rudra, Ushas - Nakta, etc.; married couples (Indra - Indrani, Varuna - Varunani, Agni - Agnai, Ashvins - Ashvini, Dyaus - Prithivi, etc.).

A special type of unification of gods (including sometimes lower ones) - the whole “All-gods” - Vishvedeva. Usually the “All-Gods” are mentioned in connection with the sacrifices listed above, and characteristic deeds are associated with each god. Sometimes “All-Gods” appear as a kind of alloy of signs and actions that are only partially correlated with specific characters.

Among other features of the Vedic pantheon, one should point out a significant number of abstract deities of various types: gods whose names are associated with the designation of certain elementary cosmological acts and are equipped with the suffix of the doer (Savitar, sū- - “to give birth”; Tvashtar, t/v/aks - “to give form”, “to create”, Dhatar, dhā- - “to establish”, cf. also Dhartar - “Supporter”, Tratar - “Defender”, etc.); creator gods (Vishvakarman - “All-Doer”; Prajapati - “Lord of the Progeny”); gods and personifying abstractions [gods Shraddha - “Faith”, Manyu - “Anger”, Vach - “Speech”, Kala - “Time”, Nirriti - “Destruction”, Tapas - “Cosmic Heat”, Kama - “Desire”, Puramdhi - “Abundance”, Aramati - “Piety”, Sunrita - “Generosity”, Skambha - “Support”, - “Breath”, etc.; goddesses - Hotra - “Call”, Dhishana - “Abundance”, Varutri - literally “Abominator (of evil)”, “Protector”, Bharati - goddess of sacred speech, etc.]; Aditi as the personification of abstraction in its pure form - “Unconnectedness”, “Boundlessness” (she is the mother of Varuna and Mitra) in contrast to Diti (the mother of the Daityas). There is an opinion that the entire Aditya class consists of gods whose names denote abstract concepts: Varuna - “True Speech”, Mitra - “Treaty”, Aryaman - “Hospitality”, “Comrade”, Ansha - “Share”, Bhaga - “Share” ", "Part", "Giver", Daksha - "Dexterity", "Ability". Something similar is observed in other cases - mythologization and deification (deification) of river names (especially cf. Sarasvati), specific objects and phenomena: Soma - plant, drink, god; Agni - fire, god; Ushas - dawn, goddess.

Different positions on the “abstract - concrete” scale are to a certain extent associated with different levels of anthropomorphism of characters of the highest level - from extreme [at which, however, traces of connection with the corresponding phenomenon are preserved (Indra, Varuna, etc.)] to significantly weakened (Dyaus, Prithivi, Agni, Soma, Surya, etc.), and these same elements can appear without any signs of anthropomorphism. In a number of cases, an anthropomorphic character is transformed into a theriomorphic one (cf. Indra → bull, Agni → horse, Pushan → goat, etc.; cf. cow as the mother of the Maruts). Some abstract deified elements are fundamentally non-anthropomorphic. Another remarkable feature correlated with this is the numerous examples of synonymy of V. m. characters with regard to their functions and connections. Thus, Surya, Savitar, Agni, Mithra, Pushan, Ushas, ​​etc. are associated with the sun, like heavenly fire. And in other cases, the spheres of action of the gods and their characteristics constantly intersect and partially cover each other. It follows that each deity is characterized by several characteristics, which are either actualized or neutralized, and that the entire set of characters is united by a relatively limited set of basic characteristics. This is precisely what creates the syncretism of the Vedic gods, which is most fully realized in phenomena of two kinds. On the one hand, we are talking about constant (sometimes very long) series of identifications like “You are Agni - Indra, ... you are Vishnu, ... you are a brahman, ... you, Agni, are King Varuna, ... you are Mithra, you are Aryaman ... ", etc. (RV II, 1). On the other hand, this feature of V. m. explains the fact that each deity in a given situation could increase in rank and be interpreted as supreme, regardless of its place in the system of mythology. The indicated features, in particular identity in a given relationship, differences of a gradual nature characteristic of mythological characters, create a special structure of the Vedic mythological space. In the aspect of identity it gravitates towards fluidity and continuity, in the aspect of distinction it is discrete and countable.

The mythological space of Vedic mythology is heterogeneous and produces an imbalance in its parts and weak organization as a whole [indistinct hierarchical connections (both Indra and Varuna are “kings of the gods”), blurred boundaries between gods, gods and non-gods, abstract and non-abstract characters, between at different levels systems, between linguistic and mythological topos, etc.]. The abundance of versions of the same myth (for example, cosmogonic) or the presence of a single myth scheme filled with different characters creates a fundamental multiplicity of mythological description and, accordingly, its interpretations, which increases the openness of the system of Vedic mythology. In relation to the main body of myths, this system is very redundant and not constructive enough. Moreover, a significant part of the characters in Vedic mythology are only to a relatively small extent explained or inferred from famous myths. In this regard, the characters of Vedic mythology form an immanent system with more information (in the information-theoretic sense) of its elements than, for example, the gods of the ancient Greek pantheon, who are very fully described through myth.

The features of the Vedic mythology system, in particular its openness and incompleteness, determined further features in its development towards the creation of large speculative religious, theological (including those gravitating towards monotheistic solutions) and natural philosophical concepts. These conditions, in particular, contributed to the recoding of certain elements of V. m. or their configurations in the spirit of moral and ethical teachings. Thus, the universal principle that determines the status of the Vedic universe, equally applicable to gods and people, physical and spiritual, is rita (rtá), opposed to anrita (anrtá), disorder, chaos, lack of truth. The concept of rita leads to the concept of truth (satya) and in moral and evaluative terms, as well as to the concept of appropriate behavior (vrata), and later duty (including the doctrine of the four stages of life). In this sense, the doctrine of rtá anticipated the later concepts of karma and dharma.

In addition to the highest (divine) level of the Vedic mythology system
1), we can talk about a number of levels:
2) deified abstract concepts, female deities (except for Ushas);
3) semi-divine characters (most often group: Ribhu, apsaras, gandharvas, Vastos pati, angiras);
4) mythical heroes and priests (Manu, Bhrigu, Atharvan, Dadhyanch, Atri, Kanva, Kutsa, etc.);
5) hostile demonic characters who play a prominent role in mythological plots (both individual - Vritra, Vala, Shushna, Shambara, Namuchi, etc., and group - asuras, panis, dasas, rakshasas, pishachis, etc.);
6) deified non-anthropomorphic objects: (: Dadhikra, Tarkshya, Etasha, Paidva; bull, goat, turtle, monkey), plants (ashwattha as an image of the world tree), landscape elements (, etc.), attributes of sacrifice (altar , a bed of sacrificial grass, a sacrificial pillar, winepresses, etc.), symbols (the so-called cakra, i.e. wheel - sun, swastika, dishes, utensils, etc.); It is significant that animate objects include an altar, a tambourine, weapons, dice, healing ointments, etc., supposedly possessing the will and ability to act;
7) man in his religious-mythological aspect: different types of priests (Brahman, Hotar, Udgatar, Adhvaryu, Atharvan), man as an object of the mythological system (prayer, sacrifice, etc.) and the subject of the corresponding descriptions; “fathers” (pitaras), deceased ancestors living in the third heaven and forming special families, sometimes coinciding with priestly surnames (Vasishthas, Bhrigus, Atharvans, Angirasas, etc.).

There is another (non-hypostatic) way of describing Vedic mythology. It involves operating with predicates, i.e. the basic and most characteristic actions characteristic of mythological characters and describing the main parameters of the Vedic model of the world itself. These predicates best reveal the repeatability of the general elements of mythology. Given the known variety of forms of linguistic expression of the same predicates, they can be reduced to a relatively small number of mythological motifs. Moreover, the identified predicate motives allow further reduction, as a result of which several simple actions are isolated. It is advisable to interpret them not in terms of mythological motifs, but as elementary cosmological invariant acts corresponding to certain basic meanings. Such acts include creating a support, establishing a support, mediating (creating space), filling space, embracing all that exists (realizing the property of being one), going beyond the boundaries of the universe, etc. These acts in their totality describe the formation of the universe and at the same time they characterize its parameters, i.e. they reveal the main features of the Vedic model of the world.

Cosmological model Vedic mythology is based on the opposition of the unorganized, restrained and fearful chaos (ahas) to the organized wide space of space (urú loká), between which there is a path; the Vedic universe is opposed to the non-Vedic, and the Vedic man is opposed to the non-Vedic. The structure of time and space is focused on distinguishing between the sacred center (the boundary of the old and new years, the center of the earth - the place of sacrifice) and the profane periphery; on the cyclicity and isomorphism of the large and small cycle [year and day, concentric spaces around the altar horizontally (four cardinal points) with a three-member structure vertically: heaven (svarga loka) - earth - hell (nārakaloka, the kingdom of Yama)], on the conjugacy of time and space (Brahman = year). Numerical constants are 3 and multiples of three: 9, 12, 33..., as well as 4, 7.
Elemental composition - earth, fire, air, later - ether (akasha); metaphysical entities - existing (sat): non-existent (asat), connected (diti): unrelated (aditi). Essential for the Vedic concept is the isomorphism of the macro- and microcosm (cf. the origin of parts of the world from the members of the first man Purusha).
All these elements are one way or another reflected in the myths of creation and in their different versions [Father Sky and Mother Earth, Purusha, golden embryo, Something One (tad ekam), existence, cosmic heat (tapas), Vishvakarman, Prajapati (spontaneous generation) , cosmogonic process as sacrifice, etc.]. Vedic cosmogony thus largely determines both ritual (sacrifice is perceived as an image of a cosmogonic act) and mythology.

The core of Vedic mythology is formed by cosmogonic myths presented by a number of options. The initial state corresponding to chaos is described as the complete absence of the elements of the universe and the basic oppositions that determine its functioning [“Then there was neither existence nor non-existence. There was no air space, no sky above it... Then there was neither death nor immortality, there was no difference between day and night... All this is indistinguishably fluid” (RV X 129)]; at the same time, the monistic principle is emphasized (“Without a breath the One breathed, and there was nothing besides it”).

The beginning of creation was given by waters, from them the universe was born, they are its basis (cf. brahmans). From the waters, land arose (usually by condensing the waters, a later version - by churning the ocean; condensation of the waters, their hardening, is the result of the joint activity of the devas and asuras) and food. Another option is the origin of an egg (in particular, a golden one) from the waters, from which a year later the demiurge Prajapati or the creator god Brahman emerged. The egg split into golden and silver halves, from which the sky and earth emerged, respectively. In Yajurvedic literature, creation is associated with the boar of early times (usually identified with Prajapati), diving into the waters and creating the earth from mud. Some texts reflect the version according to which the earth and the sun (fire) arose from a lotus floating in the waters (also with the participation of Prajapati). This last version apparently has its origins in the cosmogonic ideas of the autochthonous population of India. Other later versions of the creation myth are also known (for example, in the Upanishads), which are already the result of natural philosophical speculation, but also retain the original mythological basis. Compare, for example, the version about the creator, identified with death or hunger, who wished to incarnate, that is, to create the created world (“Brihadaranyaka Upanishad”). Further variations of this motif - the creation of a sacrifice (in particular, for Prajapati, who later created devas and asuras) and from parts of its main elements - the universe - acquire the meaning of a self-sufficient whole. We are talking primarily about the creation of the universe from the members of the body of the first man Purusha (RV X 90; AB X 2) - both natural and social organization (“When Purusha was divided, ... his mouth became a brahman, his hands became a kshatriya, his hips became a vaishya, from the feet a sudra arose. The moon was born from a thought, from the eyes the sun arose... from the head the sky arose..."); This option is based on ancient human sacrifice. Similarly, Ashvamedha gave rise to the mythological version of the creation of the world from parts of a horse (“Brihadaranyaka Upanishad”).
Starting from the Atharva Veda, Vishnu is often identified with sacrifice, with which already in the Rig Veda there is a mythology associated with the three steps that create the universe and model both its structure and the function of the center performed by Vishnu. Usually this mythology is included in the myth about the fight against the demon Vritra, in which Vishnu helps Indra. Creation as a result of sacrifice is also associated with Vishvakarman, the “creator of everything,” who appears either as a carpenter, or as a blacksmith, or as a sculptor, or with Tvashtar, the demiurge and skilled craftsman. In particular, Tvashtar gave birth to Brihaspati (or Brahmanaspati), who, as the divine prime priest, is also related to creation. Vishvakarman, Tvashtar, Brihaspati in myth are often isofunctional (similar) to Prajapati. Finally, sometimes the primary cosmogonic function is attributed in myth to Indra, who separated heaven and earth, strengthened the earth and established the firmament, which led to the creation of this world, characterized by duality (upper world - lower world, day - night, maiden - asuras, etc. .).

The listed circle of myths and mythological motifs constitutes the periphery in Vedic mythology, reflecting, as it were, the prehistory of creation. At the center of Vedic mythology are the myths about the “second creation”, more precisely, the main myth about the struggle of Indra with his enemy, who embodies the forces of chaos, uncertainty, destruction, and the creation of a new universe, organized on different principles. Indra's opponents are primarily demons - the monsters Vritra, Vala, less often Shushna, Pani, etc., hiding cattle (in a rock, in a cave), the sun, the dawn or binding waters. Indra's victory leads to the liberation of cattle, waters, etc., the dismemberment of the monster into parts, the reconstruction of the cosmos, in particular in that aspect that is associated with fertility, wealth, offspring, with the transition from extensive to intensive use of nature, i.e. ... to a specifically Vedic social cosmos.

This basic myth, varying in numerous versions, contains a number of significant motifs [for example, a monster on a mountain (hill) guarding the drink of immortality (amrita), soma, or in the waters, etc.], which, on the one hand, help to establish the connection of the main myth with other mythological motifs, which are its transformations, and on the other hand, make it possible to concretize its role in the life of Vedic society. Thus, it becomes very likely that this basic myth was a kind of scenario reproduced in the ritual of passage dedicated to the new year, that is, to that critical moment when, in accordance with the cyclical concept of time, the cosmos returns to its original undifferentiated state, and a special ritual was supposed to re-synthesize the cosmos, repeating all the stages of its formation that took place in the “primary” times.
Thus, in the main myth and ritual, the connection between mythological diachrony and synchrony was updated, familiarization with the origins took place, in particular, through a kind of initiation (sacrament) associated with the identification of the participant in the ritual (or perceiver of the myth) with the divine character of the main myth, was checked and verified structure of the universe and Vedic society. Thanks to the main myth, there was a kind of physical and moral regeneration of both the entire team as a whole and its individual members. Generalized reflections of this situation were able to be imprinted in various images - from dreams to such synthetic concepts as the world tree, brahman, etc., around which the scenario of the main myth could be played out. Of course, there were a significant number of other myths, but most of them, to one degree or another, duplicated the scheme of the main myth or expanded and modified it (cf. variants associated with the replacement of Indra or the inclusion of other gods as his assistants). It is no coincidence that the number of myths associated with a given deity largely depends on the inclusion of this deity in the scheme of the main myth. A very small number of myths are associated with characters endowed with abstract cosmogonic functions (Agni, Soma, Varuna, etc.).

Vedic mythology, as reflected in the most ancient texts, presupposes a free composition of myths based on the entire body of mythopoetic knowledge (veda); Each plot, motive, attribute is mythological in principle and does not require a special myth in an established, complete form for its explanation. At the same time, in the depths of V. m., understood as something unified, but presented in a variety of variants, mythological motifs, mythologems, and entire myths began to take shape (and the further, the more and more definitely), which over time were torn off from the common trunk and acquired more or less, for example, the love of King Pururavas for the apsara Urvashi, which later became famous thanks to literary treatment, etc.
The historical and cultural significance of Vedic mythology is extremely great. It turned out to be the source of great religious and philosophical concepts that arose later in India, and served as the basis for poetic creativity.
A number of mythological motifs received vivid expression in subsequent literature and fine arts of the peoples of India and beyond.

Literature:
Miller V.F., Essays on Aryan mythology in connection with ancient culture, t. 1, M., 1876;
Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky D.N., Hindu religion in the era of the Vedas, “Bulletin of Europe”, 1892, vol. 2-3;
Ogibenin B.L., The structure of the mythological texts of the Rigveda, M., 1968;
Elizarenkova T. Ya., Mythology of the Rigveda, in the book: Rigveda, M., 1972;
Bergaigne A., La religion vèdique d’après les hymnes du Rig-Vèda, v. 1-4, P., 1878-97;
Maedonell A. A., Vedic mythology, Strassburg, 1897;
Bloomfield M., The religion of the Veda, N. Y.-L., 1908;
Schroeder L. von, Arische Religion, Bd 1-2, Lpz., 1916-23;
Oldenberg H., Die Religion des Veda, 2 Aufl., Stuttg.-B., 1917;
Griswold H., The religion of Rigveda, L., 1923;
Keith A. B., The religion and philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, H. 1-2, Camb., 1925;
Dumézil G., Mitra - Varuna. Essai sur deux représentations indo-europèennes de la souverainete, P., 1948;
Dumézil G., Les Dieux des Indo-Européens, P., 1952;
Renou L., Religions of ancient India, 2 ed., Delhi, 1972;
Lüders H., Varuna, t. 1-2, Gött, 1951-59;
Thieme P., Mitra and Aryaman, New Haven, 1957;
Gonda J., Some observations on the relations between “gods” and “powers” ​​in the Veda..., s’Gravenhage, 1957;
Gonda J., Die Religionen Indiens, t. 1-2, Stuttg., 1960-63;
Moeller V., Die Mythologie der vedischen Religion und des Hinduismus, in: Wörterbuch der Mythologie, hrsg. von H. W. Haussig, Abt. 1, Lfg. 8, Stuttg., 1966;
Bhattacharji S., The Indian theogony, Camb., 1970;
Kuiper F. B. J., Cosmogony and conception: a Query, “History of religions”, 1970, v. 10, no. 2.

Encyclopedia "Myths of the Peoples of the World", Moscow "Russian Encyclopedia", 1994.

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- Can I spend the night with you?
- Of course, only on one condition. If you lay even a finger on my daughter, I will subject you to three of the worst Chinese tortures.
“Okay,” the guy agreed and entered the house.
At dinner, he could not take his eyes off the owner’s daughter and noticed that she was also constantly looking at him. However, remembering the owner’s threat, he did not show it and after eating he went to bed. At night, he could not sleep from desire and decided to slowly sneak into his daughter’s room, in the hope that she was waiting for him and the owner would not hear anything. In the morning he crept back to his room, tired and happy. He woke up with a feeling of heaviness in his chest. It was a large stone on which was written:
"Chinese torture number 1, big heavy stone on the chest."
“Well, this is nonsense,” the guy thought, “if this is the best that the old man could come up with, I have nothing to worry about.” He picked up the cobblestone, walked to the window and threw it out. Then he noticed another note, on which was written:
"Chinese torture number 2, stone tied to left ball."
In a panic, he looked down from the window and saw that the rope was close to tension. Deciding that it was better to break a few bones than to be castrated, he jumped out of the window. As he fell, he saw a large inscription scratched on the ground:
"Chinese torture number 3, right egg tied to the bed post."

VALA

(Old Indian Vala, lit. “encompassing”, “hiding”), in Vedic mythology the name of a demon hiding stolen cows in a cave Lady, and the name of the cave itself. V. is mentioned in the Rigveda 24 times. The main myth about V.: Pani kidnaps cows and hides them in a cave. Indra sends in search of the divine dog Sarama, who tracked down the cows. After Pani refuses to return them, Indra and Brihaspati led by the seven wise men Angirasov They destroy the cave and free the cows. The darkness disappears, the goddess of dawn Ushas appears. V. raises a howl, but Indra strikes him. This myth was interpreted in different ways: it was seen as an image of sacrificial libations (cows with milk) or a cosmogonic symbol of the dawn, the light that disperses the darkness of the night (cow-rays). Sometimes V. is brother Vritras; it is possible that their names are connected with each other, as well as with the names of other mythological characters (cf. Slavic Veles, Volos, Lithuanian Velnyas, Latvian Vels, etc.).
Lit.: Ivanov V. V., Toporov V. N., Research in the field of Slavic antiquities, M, 1974, p. 43-44, 66; Heesterman J. S., Vala and Gomati, "Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute", 1958, v. 19, p. 320-29.
V.t.

(Source: “Myths of the Peoples of the World.”)

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"VALA" in books

Defense of the Western Wall

From the book Tank Battles 1939-1945. author

Defense of the Western Wall

From the book Armored Fist of the Wehrmacht author Mellenthin Friedrich Wilhelm von

Defense of the Western Wall The enemy, exerting continuous pressure along the entire front of Army Group G, achieved significant successes, but we managed to retain the main forces of our troops and slowly retreat to the Western Wall. It must be emphasized that in these actions

ATTACK OF THE TURKISH WALL

From the book Blucher author Velikanov Nikolay Timofeevich

ATTACK OF THE TURKISH WALL These are chronicles of the heroic assault on Perekop...Regiments and divisions went into the darkness, step by step approaching the Turkish Wall. The cold, dank dawn of October 30 found the red units on a small “pimple”, called “height” on the maps

At the "Eastern Wall"

From the book These Four Years. From the notes of a war correspondent. T.I. by Polevoy Boris

At the “Eastern Wall” Already in the morning, having submitted correspondence to the telegraph about the clearing of the Kremenchug bridgehead, Pavel Kovanov and I finally get to our hut. Tired, dusty, hungry. In the entryway he meets a preoccupied Petrovich. “Finally.” Here is your friend, Vilyuga,

Defense of the Western Wall

From the book Tank Battles. Combat use of tanks in World War II. 1939-1945 author Mellenthin Friedrich Wilhelm von

Defense of the Western Wall The entire front of Army Group G was subject to constant enemy pressure. He managed to achieve significant successes, but we kept our troops in a relatively combat-ready state and slowly retreated to the Western Wall. I have to especially

At Zemlyanoy Val

From the book Jewish Moscow author Gessen Yuliy Isidorovich

At Zemlyanoy Val From Ogorodnaya Sloboda along the Garden Ring we will head to Zemlyanoy Val. In the 30s of the XX century. the street was rebuilt with monumental buildings; On the residential building 14/16 there is a memorial granite plaque with a portrait and a laconic inscription: “In this house from 1938 to 1964

Condition of the "Western Wall"

From the book Fatal decisions of the Wehrmacht author Westphal Siegfried

Condition of the “Western Wall” Our bloodless divisions, numbering 1000-1500 people in their regiments, apparently hoped that an unshakable stronghold awaited them on the “Western Wall”. If so, then they were wrong. IN last years Western Val equipment continuously and

The collapse of the "Eastern Wall"

From the book World War II. 1939–1945. History of the Great War author Shefov Nikolay Alexandrovich

The collapse of the “Eastern Wall” The Allied landing in Italy coincided with the beginning of large-scale battles for the liberation of Ukraine. The path there was opened by the victory of Soviet troops at the Kursk salient. After two unsuccessful Kharkov operations (in 1942 and 1943), the Red Army in August 1943

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CONSTRUCTION OF HADRIAN'S SHAFT

From the book 500 famous historical events author Karnatsevich Vladislav Leonidovich

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Shaft spike

From the book Great Encyclopedia of Technology author Team of authors

Shaft tenon The shaft tenon is an analogue of a trunnion; it is made in the form of a protrusion on the shaft and is intended mainly to absorb radial load. In addition, spikes on the shafts are used to increase strength in places experiencing significant bending or breaking loads. Pulley

Vala

From the book Mythological Dictionary by Archer Vadim

Vala (Old - Ind.) - “embracing”, “hiding” - a demon hiding in a cave cows kidnapped by the leader of the demons Pani, as well as the name of the cave itself. When Pani stole the cows and hid them in a cave, Indra sent the magic dog Sarama to search for them, who tracked them down. After that

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From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (VA) by the author TSB

Shaft system

From the book Great Soviet Encyclopedia (SI) by the author TSB

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Vala- Vala, a city in the inheritance of the tribe of Simeon (Joshua 19:3), possibly identical to see Bilge... Brockhaus Biblical Encyclopedia

VALA- (Old Indian Vala, lit. “encompassing”, “hiding”), in Vedic mythology, the name of the demon hiding the cows kidnapped by Pani in the cave, and the name of the cave itself. V. is mentioned in the Rigveda 24 times. The main myth about V.: Pani kidnaps cows and hides them in... ... Encyclopedia of Mythology

shaft- noun, number of synonyms: 2 asteroid (579) river (2073) ASIS Dictionary of Synonyms. V.N. Trishin. 2013… Synonym dictionary

Vala- This term has other meanings, see Vala (meanings). Wala (alternative name Wale, Ala, Wala, Walba, Vile) are a people living in the north-west of Ghana, between the Black Volta and Kulpon rivers. Contents 1... ...Wikipedia

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Vala- (Vala) Katri (pseudonym; real name and surname Karin Alice Wadenström; Wadenström, other pseudonyms Pekka, Victoria, Ilmarinen) (11.9.1901, Muonio, Finland, 28.5.1944, Stockholm), Finnish poetess and publicist. Literary activity... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

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Vala- in Ved. myth. demon name, hiding in a cow cave, kidnapped. Lady, and name the cave itself... Ancient world. encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

• Architectural monuments of Moscow The territory between the Garden Ring and the city boundaries of the 18th century from Zemlyanoy to Kamer-Kollezhsky Val tab, Makarevich G. (ed.). The territory between the Garden Ring and the borders of the city of the 18th century "(from Zemlyanoy to Kamer-Kollezhsky Val).. REPINT OF THE 1998 EDITION. Insert: 2 maps (the dust jacket is one of... Buy for 4307 RUR
• Architectural monuments of Moscow South-eastern and southern parts of the territory between the Garden Ring and the city boundaries of the 18th century from Zemlyanoy to Kamer-Kollezhsky Val tab, Makarevich G. (ed.). The south-eastern and southern parts of the territory between the Garden Ring and the boundaries of the city of the 18th century "(from Zemlyanoy to Kamer-Kollezhsky Val). REPINT OF THE 1998 EDITION. Insert: 2 maps (dust jacket…

In Vedic and Hindu mythology, semi-divine female beings who live primarily in the sky, but also on the earth - in rivers, forests, and mountains.

Bali, in Hindu mythology, a powerful ruler, an Asura king, who entered into a fight with the sun god Indra. He is a hero of Puranic literature of Hinduism. Bali was punished by Vamana, an avatar of Vishnu.

Vritra, in ancient Indian mythology, a demon, the enemy of Indra, who blocked the flow of rivers; the personification of chaos and darkness. Vritra was born by the mother of Danava demons, Danu, daughter of Daksha.

Gandharvas, a group of demigods in ancient Indian mythology, are depicted in the epics and puranas as singers and musicians who delight the gods at their festivals and feasts.

Garuda is the king of birds in Hindu mythology, the son of the sage Kashyapa and the goddess of the night Daksha, the mount of Vishnu. When Garuda was born, the gods, blinded by the radiance of his body, mistook him for Agni, the god of fire, and praised him as the personification of the sun. Garuda was at enmity with the naga snakes, whose “devourer” he was.

Nagas - in Hindu mythology, semi-divine creatures with a snake body and one or more human heads, the children of Kadru, the wife of the sage Kashyapa. The nagas were the rulers of the underworld - the Patalas, where their capital Bhogavati was located and where they guarded the countless treasures of the earth.

Ravana is the king of the Rakshasa demon army. Taking advantage of Brahma's favor, Ravana forced the old Vedic gods to serve him: he made Agni a cook, Varuna a water carrier, Vayu forced his palace to take revenge.

Rakshasas, in Vedic and Hindu mythology, evil demons; they were represented as huge monsters with many heads, horns, and fangs. The lord of the rakshasa demons was Ravana, the ten-headed rakshasa, the mythical ruler of the island of Lanka.

Hiranyakasipu - in the puranic scriptures of Hinduism, was the king of the Daityas and a demon-asura. Vishnu incarnated as his fourth avatar Narasimha, who appeared in the form of a half-man and half-lion and tore this demon into pieces.

Hiranyaksha is a demon-asura in the Puranic epic poems, the son of the mother of giants and demons Diti and the sage Kashyapa, the grandson of Daksha. He attacked Svarga with his club, forcing the deities from Mount Meru to flee in fear and panic.

Shesha is a thousand-headed serpent in Hindu mythology that supported the earth and served as a bed for Vishnu when he slept in the intervals between the creations of the world.

Yakshas are semi-divine beings in Hindu mythology who were born from the feet of Brahma at the same time as the rakshasas, one of the main classes of demons. The Yakshas were benevolent to people, they guarded his wonderful gardens of the god of wealth Kubera, as well as treasures buried in the ground and caves.