The first occupation of the Jewish tribes was. Western Asia in Antiquity

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The place of Jews among other peoples.
The ancestral homeland of the peoples that later formed into the Afroasiatic family of languages ​​was located in the territory of Mesopotamia.
o In the XII-XI millennium BC. in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia, Etelköz, Sennaar) and Palestine, a division of a single mass of Caucasoid speakers of Nostratic languages ​​took place (more on this in “Macrofamilies”) into Kartvelian (Georgian), Indo-European (Germanic, Celto-Roman, Slavic-Baltic, Indo-Iranian , Armenian, Greek-Albanian), Afroasiatic (Semitic-Hamitic), Dravidian (South Indian), Uralic (Finnish, Estonian, Volga, Komi, Hungarian, Ob) and Altai (Turkic, Mongolian, Tungusic, Korean, Japanese), Eskimo- Aleutian The Nostrati began expanding to the north and east.
o In the 9th millennium BC. Afroasiatic peoples (and languages ​​accordingly) split into Semitic and Hamitic zones. The Hamites left Mesopotamia and migrated to North Africa, where they divided into Cushitic (its branch is the autonomously developed Omotic family of languages), ancient Egyptian, Chadic and Berber groups.
o In the 5th millennium BC. began the division of the Afro-Asian peoples who remained in Mesopotamia and in the future received the name Semitic. At first, part of the tribes migrated to the south of the Arabian Peninsula, laying the foundation for the southern subgroup. A little later, the development of the Eastern Mediterranean began.
o In the 4th millennium BC. the northern branch was divided into northwestern and northeastern. The northeastern subbranch was represented only by the Akkadians. The northwestern subbranch has undergone more changes.
o In the 3rd millennium BC. from north-west languages, a branch broke off, giving rise to the central and Ethiopian subgroups, the division of which occurred in the 9th century. AD, when the migration of Semitic tribes began from the Arabian Peninsula to Ethiopia, inhabited by Cushitic peoples.
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The first people (language) identified by scientists as Semitic were the inhabitants of the city of Akkad (2316-2261 BC) in Babylonia, after whom the rest of the inhabitants of Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia), who spoke languages ​​related to Akkadian, were named .
In fact, the Akkadians were divided into two related groups - the Assyrians (north) and the Babylonians (south).
Assyria - from the ancient Semitic "as-sur", "syrt" ("desert"), because these tribes lived in the desert region in the upper reaches of the Euphrates.
Babylon - from the ancient Semitic “bab-ilu” (“gate of God”), in connection with the majestic buildings of the city.
We should not talk about Akkadian (Assyrian-Babylonian) culture, but about Assyrian-Subaric and Sumerian-Babylonian.
The Subareans are a Hurrian people, in alliance with which the Akkadians formed the Kingdom of Assyria.
The Sumerians are a people belonging to a parallel macrofamily of languages, close to the Sino-Caucasian. The Sumerians lived in the south of Mesopotamia, on the coast of the Persian Gulf. It was they who gave impetus to the development of the Babylonian civilization.
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The development of the primitive tribes of Palestine began in the 9th millennium BC. (the so-called Natufian archaeological culture), when in this region there was a transition of some pastoralists to agriculture. For a long time it was believed (at the suggestion of F. Engels) that this increased life expectancy, improved conditions and contributed to the development of civilization. However, the latest finds of archaeologists, incl. and in the famous site of Wadi en-Natuf, they showed that farmers were slaves of cattle breeders and provided the latter with food. The average life expectancy of pastoralists was 30 years, and that of farmers was 20 years. Anthropologically, the first inhabitants of Palestine belonged to the Middle Asian racial type, i.e. the original racial type of Caucasians. It was in the Middle East that blood group II was formed (see “Macrofamilies”). The Natufians spoke a Western dialect of the Nostratic language, which probably later formed the basis of the Kartvelian languages. In 1908, Russian scientist N.Ya. Marr published the book "Basic boundaries in the grammar of the ancient Georgian language in connection with preliminary reports on the relationship of the Kartvelian and Semitic languages." According to scientists Gamkrelidze and Ivanov, Indo-European, Semitic and Kartvelian languages ​​have “similarities to the point of isomorphism in the design of linguistic structures...”. The work of linguist Paltimaitis (1984) on “Important Kartvelian-Baltic and Kartvelian-Semitic convergences” allows us to clarify the level of similarity, both ancient European with common Kartvelian, and common Kartvelian with ancient Semitic. On the right is a summary table for comparing language families (counting common roots in the basic vocabulary) using the method of V.M. Illich-Svitych and S.E. Yakhontova.
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The first Semitic settlers appeared in Palestine in the 5th-3rd millennium BC, coming through the Syrian Desert from Mesopotamia. Some of the incoming tribes displaced the Natufian population from there (Rephaim) and settled in the area of ​​the Jordan River and the Dead Sea (Siddim<евр.>, Ghor<араб.>), and the other part after some time returned back to Assyria and Babylon. The Prakartvels were forced to migrate north. The Northwestern Semites had a historically recorded name - Amor(r)ei. With this word (“Amurru”, “Martu”) Babylonian scribes designated people who spoke Semitic dialects different from Akkadian, and were considered the descendants of Amurru, the son of the Babylonian deities - the strongman Balu (Baal) and the maiden Amat. The tribes that settled in Palestine (3000 BC) received the name Canaanites from their neighbors, although linguistically, culturally and anthropologically they did not differ from the Amorites. Part of the Amorite tribe of Eblaites penetrated into North Caucasus, where the Maykop culture began. In historical literature, two different peoples are mentioned under the name "Amorites" (Amorites). One of them is Semitic, the ancestor of the Jews, and the other is Indo-European of a light racial type, by which, most likely, they mean one of the Anatolian peoples of Asia Minor.
Versions of the origin of the word "Canaan":
A). The Hebrew "kena"an" means "subordinate, kneeling" and is mentioned in the Bible.
b). Akkadian "kananum" - "trader".
V). Hurrian "kinahh-nu" - "red woolen cloth". These peoples traded wool. The more famous name of the Canaanites, given to them by the Greeks - Phoenicians (Greek "phoinike" - "dark red") is also traced to this.
G). The word Canaan is traced back to the name Cain, which in one dialect was pronounced Kahanan.
The Phoenicians, Amorites and Canaanites are one people, with the only difference being that historically it is customary to use the word “Phoenician” - to the Accoians, Amalekites, Ladians, Eblaites and Semites who settled the coastal cities (Byblos, Sidon, Ugarit, Tire, Arvad), founded pre-Kartvelians back in the 6th millennium BC, and the “Canaanites” - to the inhabitants of the interior regions of Palestine. "Amorite" is a generalized name for Northwestern Semites.
d). The word "Phoenician" (as the Greeks called the population of Palestine) may come from the ancient Egyptian name for the Semites - "fenhu".
The Amorites, separate from the Canaanite-Phoenicians, at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. founded the Kingdom of Yamhad, also known as Amurru, in the upper reaches of the Euphrates and northern regions of Syria. The Canaanite civilization of inner Palestine flourished from the 20th to the 14th centuries. BC, being under the constant protection of Egypt.
Phenicia reached its heyday at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC, when Mycenaean Greece left the arena.
In Europe, the Phoenicians were also known as the Carthaginians. Their achievements include the invention of the alphabet. The Phoenician alphabet (based on Ugaritic, which was based on Akkadian hieroglyphs) formed the basis of modern Hebrew and Greek (the Greeks changed the writing direction to left to right), from which the Cyrillic and Latin alphabet are derived. The Arameans, having borrowed the Phoenician alphabet, created their own letter, which then formed the basis of the Georgian Asomtavruli, the Armenian letter of Mesrop Mashtots and the Arabic tana (tsifara).
Subsequently (XII century BC), the coastal city-states of the Phoenicians and the Country of the Amorites were destroyed by the Philistines and Checkers, the so-called. "peoples of the sea", related to the Etruscans, Trojans, Cretan-Mycenaeans and Urartians. The Philistines gave the modern name to the Eastern Mediterranean - Falasta (Pelishtim) - Palestine, Country of the Philistines. However, this word was established only during Roman rule.
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Not all Amorite tribes that returned to Mesopotamia were assimilated by the local population or established their power in Mesopotamian cities (the Amorites destroyed the Babylonian dynasty of Ur, replacing it with their own). A significant part of them retained their ethnic identity in the southern part of Mesopotamia. They retained the name sutii. Sheth (the son of Adam and Eve, born after the death of Abel and the flight of Cain) - a character in a Mesopotamian legend - was considered a distant ancestor of Susti. It is worth immediately dwelling on the origin of the names of the first people. “Adami”, according to ancient Hebrew. means not “man”, as is commonly believed, but “red earth”, because According to legend, God blinded the first man from clay. "Evah" (Eve) is translated as "life". These characters were borrowed from the Sumerians, like the entire legend of the creation of the world.
A certain Babylonian king, during a period of repression, exterminated the Suti "from dusk to dawn." The survivors, led by Aram, the king of the city of Ur, fled across the Euphrates River to the west. The crossing of the river began to be considered the beginning of a new life, due to which the tribe began to call itself “(x)-i/e-b(o)r-im” (“hiborim (Jews)” - “those who crossed the river” - plural. , in singular - ibr, khebor), in contrast to “those who did not cross”, and their leader was given the nickname “(x)-i/e-b(o)r-ah-im” (“transferred across the river ” - Abraham, Ibrahim). It should be noted that in Semitic languages ​​there is often an alternation of vowels “a - and - e - y”, consonants “g - x - k”, “s - w”, “b - v”, “z - s”, as well as the phenomenon of reduction, i.e. loss of syllables and sounds, depending on dialects. Perhaps the Russian word “Jew” goes back to “khevra” (“guys”).
At the turn of the 18th-17th centuries. BC. the Jews (“the ones who crossed the river”) stopped in the Syrian desert, where the tribes split into two parts: the Jewish one, which moved to Palestine, and the Aramaic one, which remained in the Syrian desert. The biblical (and also Islamic and Jewish) legend about Abraham and his children dates back to this time, “explaining” the relationship of the Semitic peoples.
Abraham (Aramaic by nationality) had a wife Sarah (Sutian) and a maid servant Hagar/Hajer (Ethiopian). The maid gave birth to a son, who, according to the angel’s slander, was named Ismail (“yisma-el” - “heard by God”). In her old age, the wife gave birth to Isaac/Yitzchak (Hebrew “laughing”). The son of Isaac - Jacob (“yakub” - “following behind”, or “healer”), who received the name Israel (“yisra-el” - “defeating God”) after an episode of struggle with Yahweh/Jehovah (God), became the ancestor of the Jews . Ismail became the founder of the Arabs. Abraham, in turn, came from the family of Peleg, the son of Eber, one of the great-grandsons of Shem.
It is worth noting that this legend is only partly true. The Arab tribes separated from other Semites 500 years before the flight of the Suti from Mesopotamia. On the Arabian Peninsula they mixed with the local population of the Mediterranean type (the Arabs were originally Western Asians) and laid the foundation for the mixed Semitic-Arabian type. It was Abraham who introduced the ritual of circumcision (Brit Milah), replacing it with sacrifices (after the episode with Isaac, whom God ordered to be brought as a gift to himself).
Linguistic analysis shows that the names of Abraham's descendants are of later and non-Sutian origin: Isaac is a Hebrew analogue of one ancient Egyptian name, Jacob is a Phoenician name. Consequently, these characters were included in the Holy Scriptures many centuries later.
That. in the 17th century BC. Jews, representing a tribal union, appeared in Palestine, destroyed several Canaanite cities and settled on both banks of the Jordan River. In the 1500s, a severe drought began west of the Jordan, and the cities fell into decay. The population was forced to move to Egypt in the Nile Valley (the East Jordanian tribes remained in place). In Egypt, Jews fell into semi-slavery and were employed in the construction of fortresses.
The exodus of the Jews from Egypt in the Bible is associated with the name Moshe<Мойша>(Moses, Musa, Movsar) and his brother Aaron (Yaron). The name Moshe has an unclear origin: a) ancient Egyptian. “masha” - “pulled out of the water” (according to legend, his future mother found him in the river along which he was floating in his cradle); b) other Semitic. “mosha-el” - “born of God”; c) ancient Hebrew “Meshsha” - “saved, dedicated” (the term “messiah” comes from the same root). In fact, Moses was Hosarsiph - the nephew of the Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II, who committed a crime and fled the country. In the country of Midian on the coast of the Red Sea, he became related to the local priest Jethro, changing his name and taking his daughter Zipporah as his wife. Being vain by nature, Moses set out to create an ideal society. He chose Jews, whose religion tended towards monotheism, as the basis for such a society. During the Libyan-Egyptian War (1350s BC), Moses returned to his homeland, negotiated with Parnassus (Jewish tribal leader) Aaron (“Yaharon” - “high”) and returned to Midian with the Jews . Moses became the first prophet (spiritual leader) of the Jews, who formed a new tribal union, called ben-Israel (sons of Israel), named after the mythical ancestor of Jacob-Israel. The unifying factor was Yahadut - “the cult of the god Yahweh (Jehovah)”, which grew out of the Levite sect (named after the priest Levi), which streamlined the beliefs of the ancient Semites. In the Bible, the Levites are considered one of the Jewish tribes.
The supreme deity of the Semites was heavenly god“L” (El, Elohim, Allah) is the Bull God, a typical symbol of agricultural and pastoral cultures. This god different nations acted under different synonyms (“do not mention the name of God in vanity”): among the Jews - Yahweh, which comes from the pronunciation of the initial letters of the word “IEVE” (Iod-hE-Vau-hE), meaning “life”. In the text and during prayers, this word was often replaced by “Savaoth” (“shevah” - “forefather”). The East Jordanian tribes revered the god Chemosh. The names of Yahweh's wives were often found - Lilith (up to the waist - a woman, below - a pillar of fire) and Astarte / Ishtar / Asherah (goddess of happiness), as well as the name of the Phoenician-Canaanite god of sacrifices Moloch (“melek”, ancient Semitic - “ Human").
However, soon, during a revolt of the Reuben tribe, Moses and Aaron died. Joshua (Joshua ben Nun) took the reins of government. The created union of the “Sons of Israel” did not consist of 12, as written in the Bible, but of a smaller number of tribes (tribes), named after the Parnassians - Reuben, Simeon, Judah, Menasseh and Ephraim. Two of these tribes (southern) remained faithful to the ideas of Moses - Judah and Simeon, and went to Palestine, penetrating into it from the south. Other tribes (northern), led by Joshua and Caleb (“kelev” - “dog”), migrated to the northeast and settled in the Amorite steppes (Syrian Desert), where they stayed for several years, after which they entered Palestine from the east, settling north of the Jews and Simeons, while several more tribes broke away. Aleppo founded the city, known in our time as Aleppo (Haleb). The northern part of the Jewish tribes was very militant, which was reflected in the destruction of the city of Arach (Jericho) along with its inhabitants (“Trumpets of Jericho: the fall of the city walls is associated with Joshua’s order to his army to play on the pipes, which caused the earthquake. However, the earthquake was caused by other reasons"). Usually in textbooks, the history of Israel and the Jews begins precisely from the moment of the destruction of Jericho, calling it an “invasion,” but in reality it is the “return” of the tribes that had already lived here from the 18th to the 15th centuries. BC. Between the northern and southern Jewish tribes was the city of Jebus (now: Jerusalem<евр.>, Al-Quds<араб.>) - an outpost of the Jebusites, Perushites and Hivites, Indo-European peoples who came from the Balkans through Asia Minor to Palestine and captured the Canaanite city. The Jews lived interspersed with the Canaanites, engaged, like them, in agriculture.
For several subsequent centuries, Palestine (including the Phoenician coast) was under Egyptian rule.
In the 14th century The Arameans entered the historical arena. The Ahlamu tribe is most often mentioned. By the 10th century. BC. The Arameans captured the southeastern territories of the destroyed Hittite state and formed the Damascus Kingdom, which did not last long and was united with Assyria. However, Aramaic for a long time remained colloquial in the Middle East. The descendants of the Arameans today call themselves Assyrians.
In the 12th century BC. (1299 - 1200) to the east of the Jordan, tribal unions of Jewish tribes that were not in Egypt began to take shape - Edom (Idumea), Moab and Ammon (present-day Amman - the capital of Jordan). The word "Edom" is of the same origin as "Adam", indicating the red clay clay of the tribe's habitat. Egyptian sources refer to these tribes, as well as the Sinai nomads and Midianites, by the general term "Shasu". According to the Bible, the cities of Moab and Ammon were founded by Moab and Ben-Ammon - sons born as a result of incest of the righteous Lot (the only survivor of the inhabitants of Sodom) with his daughters.
These Trans-Jordanian tribes were also subordinate to Egypt for a long time. The names of the Ammonites and Moabites appear in various sources until the Arab conquest in the 7th century. AD, when these peoples completely merged with the nomads and formed the basis of the ethnic group of the Syro-Palestinian Arabs.
Around 1207 BC Jews (living in fragmented state formations) took part in the uprising against Egyptian power and suffered complete defeat. However, even without this, Egypt's power in this region soon weakened.
Jewish tribes who spoke dialects of the Amorite language began to switch to the Canaanite language of their more civilized Phoenician neighbors. It was the new language that went down in history as Hebrew.
Settlement of Jewish tribes:
Jews<эхуд, иехуда, йегудим, ягода>- west of the Dead Sea, the cities of Jerusalem and Hebron, Gaza
Simeon<шимон, шмон>- south of the Jews, in the area of ​​​​Gaza and Beersheba (“grandfather’s well” [Abraham])
Reuben<реувен>, Gad - east of the Jordan River
Ephraim<”эфраим” - «плодовитый»>, Dan, Benjamin<”бен-йамин” - «сын любимой жены»>- the western bank of the Jordan River (Tel Aviv) and the central regions of Palestine, there was a colony of the Dan tribe in the Golan Heights at the source of the Jordan
Asherah<асир, ясир>, zakhar<”ис-сахар” - «памятный»>, zebulon, naftali - terr. present Lebanon and Haifa
menasseh<менашше>- the tribe had two extensive possessions (on the west bank of the Jordan and at the source)
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Origin of ethnonyms.
- from “ibrim”, “hebor” came: Jew (Russian), hebrew (English), ebro (Spanish), ebrios (Greek), hreai and gevork (Armenian), khudya (Persian).
- from “Ehud”, “Juda” and other dialect forms, the names of the tribe of Jews came about through changes - Jew (Russian from Greek), jew (English), juif (French), juda (German), jid ( Balt.), zid (Polish).
The first ethnonym began to denote the ethnicity of Jews, and the second - religious.
HISTORY OF ISRAEL
The threat from the Philistines, who destroyed the Phoenicians, forced the Jewish tribes in the 11th century. BC. unite into a single state, the heyday of which occurred during the reign of King David (Daoud - “beloved”)<1004-965>, who captured the city of Jebus, renamed it Jerusalem and made it the capital. After the death of David's son, King Solomon (Shlomo - “deeds”) in 928 BC, the state split into Israel (north of Jerusalem) and Judea, which included the territories of the three tribes Simeon, Benjamin and Judah.
The first king was Saul (“the long-awaited one”)<1040-1004>.
In 721 BC. Israel was conquered by the Assyrians, the population of the capital - Samaria - was taken captive and settled in Mesopotamia in the city of Samarra (known in this Iraqi war). Samaria itself was inhabited by Assyrians, who received the ethnonym “Samaritans” (“Parable of the Good Samaritan”).
In 612, the Assyrian kingdom fell under the blows of Babylon and became part of it.
In 581 (597) the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the capital of Judea - the city of Jerusalem. Part of the population fled to Egypt, part was taken to Babylon. The Jews were settled in the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates, receiving an autonomous entity called Eretz Israel - the Land of Israel. The leadership of the Jewish population of Babylon was carried out by “resh galuta” (“Prince of Exile”).
In 538, the next Assyrian king allowed some of the exiled Jews [former residents of Samaria] (but not the Israelites exiled from the Kingdom of Israel) to return to their homeland.
458-445 BC. Restoration of Jerusalem. Jewish states are in decline.
332 BC Conquest of Judea by Alexander the Great.
301-168 BC. The reign of the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties in Judea. In 201 BC. As a result of the war between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid states, Palestine became part of the Syrian Seleucid kingdom. During the reign of the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes, due to religious oppression, the Jews launched the Maccabean Revolt (167-140 BC), which led to the restoration of independence and the formation of the new Kingdom of Judah.
167-37 BC. Revival of the Jewish State. Reign of the Maccabean and Hasmonean dynasties.
In the 90s BC. The Armenian king Tigran II made a trip to Palestine and took away many prisoners, who were settled in the Caucasus and formed the basis of a community of Georgian and Armenian Jews..
63 BC The conquest of Judea by the Roman general Pompey and the introduction of a protectorate.
In 63 BC. Palestine becomes a colony of Rome. A stream of Jewish migrants poured into the Empire. In Rome, many patrician families, as well as members of the imperial house, accepted Judaism. Sources say that there were many supporters of Judaism in Greece. Josephus testifies the same about the population of Antioch. Apostle Paul, preacher of Christianity in the 1st century. AD met proselytes (proselytes are supporters of Judaism, descendants of mixed marriages between Jews and non-Jews) during his travels from Athens to Asia Minor. “Passionate proselytism,” wrote the Jewish historian Rainach, “was one of the dominant features of Judaism in the Greco-Roman era; this has never been observed... Over the course of two or three centuries, a huge number of people were converted to Judaism... The powerful growth of supporters of the Jewish faith in Egypt and Cyprus occurred thanks to mixed marriages of Jews with local residents. Proselytism has captured literally all layers of society.” Those who converted to Judaism were immediately classified as Jews as an ethnic group.
The attraction to Judaism was associated with the decline of the Roman pantheon of gods, as well as with the presence of a mystical branch of Judaism - Kabbalism, which was so attractive to the elite. Moreover, Judaism is the first monotheistic religion.
The adoption of Judaism was not associated with the rite of circumcision (Brit Milah), because circumcision was the prerogative of Jews, as God's chosen ethnic group. In reality, this ritual is a purely hygienic procedure and is practiced by almost all nomadic peoples of the Middle East and North Africa, as well as among some groups of peoples of India and Tropical Africa.
37 BC End of Hasmonean rule.
37-4 BC. The reign of Herod the Great. There are prerequisites for the emergence of numerous religious and political sects.
In the 1st century AD The birth of Yeshua ha-Nozri (Jesus of Nazareth) in the historical region of Galilee (read “Alexis Schneider “Jesus of Nazareth””). It is often believed that the Galileans were a nationality and that they were racially distinct from the Jews and other peoples of Judea. In fact, the word “Galilee” comes from the Aramaic “Gelil Haggoiim,” meaning “circle of the Gentiles.” Galilee was a Middle Eastern bazaar where people from all over the East and Europe gathered. That. Galileans is not the name of an ethnic group.
6 g. The era of the reign of Roman governors begins and the transformation of Judea into a Roman province.
26-36 years The reign of Pontius Pilate. In 33 AD, Jesus of Nazareth was crucified on the cross for making anti-government statements. After this, his followers chose the cross as an attribute of faith, and the Romans began to call them by the Greek term “kristianos”. In Greek “kristos” kristwV - “two perpendicularly crossed straight lines”, i.e. - cross. The Russian word “cross” is of Greek origin and appeared with the first Christian missionaries. In Armenian “cross” is “khach(k)”, “khachatur”. In Old Russian “cross” is “dick”.
In 66 AD. In Judea (the term state of Israel had not been used for several centuries; its territory was part of Judea), an uprising of Christians and Jews against Roman rule broke out - the Jewish War, due to defeat in which a significant part of the Jews left Palestine. Over time, Christianity, as the religion of the poor, found many more supporters than Judaism, which became the elite religion of rich priests and a narrow circle of rulers. This was the reason for the beginning of the persecution of Jews and supporters of Judaism in general. The opposition between “Christian” and “Jew” began (in the Middle Ages, and even in modern times, there was no distinction between the terms “Jew” and “Jew”). The social hatred of the poor towards the rich was transformed into the hatred of poor Christians (at that time there was no enriched priestly elite) towards rich Jews (who were either not Jews and Semites in general, or were proselytes [see above]).
70 Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans.
After the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-135), there were practically no Jews left in the southern part of Judea. They were even prohibited from entering Jerusalem. Judea was renamed Palestine.
During the time of the Sassanids (226-293), the head of the Babylonian Jews (resh galuta) was one of the close associates of the Shahan Shah. Eretz Israel was divided into 4 districts: Nagardea, Mahuza, Susa, Pumbadita. The city of Isfahan, inhabited by Jews, enjoyed a special status. During the reign of Varahran II, persecution of Christians and Jews began.
295. Division of Palestine by the Romans into three parts: Palestina Prima, Secunda, Tertia.
312 Recognition of Christianity state religion Roman Empire.
326 Foundation of churches by the Byzantine Empress Helena in Palestine.
395 Division of the Roman Empire. Palestine falls under Byzantine rule.
Byzantine period of control of Palestine (395-613). After the fall of the Roman Empire and the formation of the Western European kingdoms, Jews began to populate the countries of Western Europe.
In 421-439 - during the reign of Varahran V, Jewish communities in Iran and Mesopotamia flourished, but his grandson Peroz began the process of Zoroastrianization of Jews and Christians. The persecution stopped only in 484.
In 524, Eretz Israel separated from Iran. The capital was the city of Mahuza. The head was Resh Galut Mar-Zutra II.
In 531, the Jewish state in Mesopotamia was destroyed by Khosrow I, and the population was evicted to the Caucasus, giving rise to a community of Mountain Jews.
The period of rule of the Persian Sassanid dynasty in Palestine (613-638)
The period of Arab rule in Palestine (638-1099) Arab conquests contributed to the penetration of Jews into Central Asia, because Muslims were in non-enemy relations with Jews, not considering them infidels, because. Islam, in fact, grew out of Judaism, accepting its holy books and postulates. A significant part of international trade was in the hands of the Jews.
The Arabs began to develop the Palestinian lands, previously inhabited by Jews and East Jordanian tribes. There was a division of the Arab tribes into northern - Kaissites and southern - Yemeni. But more on this in the work “Brief characteristics of the southern, central and Ethiopian subgroups.”
Crusader period (1099-1291). In 1095, Pope Urban called on Christians to liberate Jerusalem from Muslims and Jews. This was the beginning of the Crusades. Jewish and Muslim communities were destroyed not only in Palestine, but throughout Europe. This was the beginning of mass repressions against non-Christians.
In the 10th-11th centuries. The center of Jewish thought and culture moved from Babylonia to Spain, which was conquered by the Arabs, and where there were no restrictions on the Jews' way of life. These conditions remained in the Christian kingdoms of Spain (until the end of the 14th century), even after the expulsion of the Arabs (Moors - from the Greek “mauro” - “dark”).
In 1215, the Pope issued a decree commanding all Jews (regardless of nationality) to wear special signs differences so that no one could confuse them with Christians: red and yellow stripes, colored pointed cone hats. Christians were forbidden to communicate with Jews.
In 1290 the Jews were expelled from England, and in 1306 from France. They were soon allowed to return to France, but in 1394 they were expelled again and migrated to Germany and Poland. The most significant pogroms occurred in Europe during the plague epidemic of 1348.
In the 14th century The plague epidemic began, and since no one knew the true causes of the disaster, the inhabitants of all plague-ridden countries, at the instigation of the church, blamed it all on strangers, travelers, gypsies who appeared in Europe in the 12th century. and members of the non-Christian minority - Jews. People believed that Jewish communities were taking revenge for decades of persecution by poisoning wells and springs. The true causes of the plague were the gypsies, who brought this terrible disease from India, and the reason for its rapid spread was the custom of kissing the cross in the Church: the metal symbol was kissed first by the wretched and holy fools, the sick and dying (including from the plague), and then by the healthy People.
From 1420, Turkish rule was established in Palestine, which lasted until the beginning of the 20th century. Gradually, Muslim Arabs are pushing Jews out of Palestinian territories. Relations between Judaism and Islam are deteriorating.
From the middle of the Middle Ages, cities and trade began to flourish. Traditionally Jewish spheres of economic activity (trade and crafts) began to gradually go to other groups of the population. Craftsmen united in guilds. Only members of the guild were allowed to practice the craft, and to join it you had to swear on the Bible, so access to the guild was closed to non-Christians. The Catholic Church forbade lending money at interest, and for economic needs loans were constantly required; Jews were often the only ones from whom it was possible to obtain a loan. Gradually, words with the root “jud-“ began to be associated with the word “usurer.” Playing on anti-Jewish sentiments, local rulers, city magistrates and wealthy merchants tried to deal with unwanted competitors and get rid of the moneylenders to whom they owed money.
In the 15-16th centuries. a significant part of European Jews and ordinary Jews moved to Poland, where they were less persecuted. The cultural center also moved to Poland. As a result of the three divisions of Poland in 1772-95. The territories of Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania with a significant Jewish population were annexed to the Russian Empire. From that moment on, the Russian Empire became one of the states most populated by Jews.
In 1555, Pope Paul IV, in his bull “Cum nimis absurdum,” demanded the strictest, constant tightening of all decrees that had existed before that time concerning Jews (and not necessarily Jews), and demanded their relocation to a ghetto. The Jews were considered heretics because they did not profess Christianity. Jews who converted to Christianity, the so-called. Marranos, this did not apply, because they did not stand out from the general background. It should be repeated that there was an identification of the concepts “Jew” and “Jew.” A year later, many (who did not pay off the church) who did not agree to Christianization were forcibly evicted from the Jews of Rome. All Catholic countries where they enjoyed relative freedoms were obliged to follow this example. At the end of the 16th century in Poland, with the end of the reign of Casimir the Great, non-Christians were moved into ghettos. A huge number of refugees accumulated there, fleeing the pogroms committed by the Cossacks in Ukrainian villages (under Bogdan Khmelnitsky). In Ukraine, Jews were strongly associated with the Turks (Khazars, Mongols and Turks). Later, ethnic Jews who had settled in the Alpine lands, Bohemia and East Germany since the times of the Roman Empire moved to Poland.
The word “anti-Semitism” was first used by the baptized half-Jew Wilhelm Marr in his 19th century anti-Jewish pamphlet “The Victory of Judaism over Germanism.”
At the end of the 19th century. Zionism arose in Europe - a movement aimed at returning Jews to Palestine and creating a Jewish state there. However, until 1917, there was little Jewish emigration to Palestine (which was then under Turkish rule). In total for the period from 1881 to 1917. 65 thousand Jews left for Palestine. There they settled mixed with local Sabra Jews.
During these same years, about 2.5 million Jews emigrated to the United States from Europe and Turkey. Emigration from Russia was especially facilitated by the pogroms that took place before and during the Revolution of 1905-07. Jews were considered opponents of the monarchy, because many revolutionaries were ethnic Jews.
In the 80s of the 19th century. In Palestine, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda revived Hebrew as a spoken language. This language was called Hebrew.
The period of the British Mandate in Palestine (1918-1948) During the First World War, Palestine was captured by England. In 1917, the British government published the Balfour Declaration, in which it promised to promote the creation of a national home for Jewish people. Napoleon Bonaparte was the first to talk about creating a Jewish state in the Middle East, but his plans were not destined to come true - he was exiled to the island of St. Helena, and his supporters were persecuted. Interestingly, French Jews did not support his ideas. The Balfour Declaration contributed to an increase in Jewish migration to Palestine, but not dramatically: during the period 1919-31. About 120 thousand Jews went there. Emigration to the USA continued to prevail, which in the 20s of the twentieth century. became the most Jewish-populated country. The pace of emigration to Palestine changed after Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933. In the six years preceding World War II, more than 200 thousand Jews left for Palestine.
In 1947, the UN General Assembly decided to create two independent states in Palestine - Jewish and Arab. Palestine and Israel (Medinat Israel) were planned as a “testing ground” for sorting out relations between the USSR and the USA. At first, the USSR wanted to persuade the newborn state of Israel to a socialist model of development, but Israel preferred capitalism. Then the USSR relied on Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Libya, which received constant financial and military assistance. The USSR began to support Arafat, who stood at the origins of Palestinian terrorism. On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed in part of Palestine. A few hours after Israel declared independence, the Arab-Israeli War began, in which 7 Arab states opposed Israel. The war ended in 1949 with the victory of Israel, which captured part of the territory intended for the Arab state of Palestine. During the Six-Day War of 1967, the entire territory of Palestine came under Israeli control: the Gaza Strip, the West Bank and the Golan Heights in Syria. These territories are officially considered occupied.
In the second half of the 20th century, the rate of Jewish emigration to Israel increased significantly. For the period 1948-1966. More than 1.2 million Jews came to Israel - almost 2 times more than there were at the time of the declaration of independence.
Currently, the population of Israel is 6.5 million people (including the occupied territories), of which 25% is the Arab population, the share of which is constantly increasing.

NORTH-WESTERN SUB-GROUP OF SEMITIC PEOPLES
* * *
Modern Jews and peoples equated to them are divided into the following groups:
Sephardi and Mizrahi - Jews of southern Europe (Romance languages)
Ashkenazi - Jews of northern Europe (the language of the Germanic group is Yiddish)
sabra - Jews of Israel (the language of the Semitic group is Hebrew)
Ebraeli - Jews of Georgia (language of the Kartvelian family - Kivruli)
religious group of Karaites (the language of the Turkic group is Crimean Tatar)
ethno-confessional community of Crimeans (the language of the Turkic group is Crimean Tatar)
ethno-confessional community of Mountain Jews (the language of the Iranian group is Tat)
Yahudi - Jews of Central Asia (languages ​​of the Iranian and Turkic groups)
semuran - Chinese Jews (Chinese language)
The number of native speakers of Jewish languages ​​and dialects is 14 million people.
________
Another northwestern Semitic ethnic group, the Assyrians, is often classified as Jews

Of the world's 14 million Jews, only 29% live in Israel. The rest are in diasporas: 47% in North and South America, 22% in Europe, 2% in other regions of the world.
* * *
O Jews of Israel (sabar, sabra).
Jews who did not leave Palestine even in the darkest times. Driven out by the Arabs, they lived on the Mediterranean coast and on the Sinai Peninsula. These also include Yemenite and Libyan Jews. Anthropologically they represent the Armenoid type of the Caucasian race.
From the beginning of the twentieth century, when the influence of the Arabs and Turks on Palestine weakened, a movement began for a return to their historical homeland - Zionism. In Hebrew, "Zion" [dialect forms: Zion, Zion - remember "The Matrix"] simply means "Motherland". Mostly enthusiasts returned. They speak the West Semitic language Hebrew (revived in the 19th century). Hebrew has 2 dialects: Israeli and Yemenite.
Arabic-Hebrew language of Libya and Egypt.
* * *
O Ashkenazi (Tedeschi).
Ashkenazi Jews in the 60s. The 20th century numbered 11 million (their number included purebred Jews, proselytes and simply Jews). And usually in Europe the word “Jew” (“Jew”) means an Ashkenazi Jew. The word "Ashkenazi" in Hebrew in medieval Jewish religious literature did not designate a people, but a geographical region from the Rhine to the Vistula, however, there is no other word that would designate the majority of modern European non-Sephardic Jews.
The word "Ashkenazi" is mentioned in the Bible and Torah:
- that was the name of the son of Yaphet (Japhet)
- Ashkenaz was the brother of Togarmakh (and nephew of Magog), whom the Khazars (Turkic people, a branch of the Bulgars and Pechenegs), according to the chronicles of King Joseph, considered their ancestor
- Ashkenaz is mentioned in the book of the prophet Jeremiah, where the prophet calls on his people and his allies to destroy Babylon: “Raise a banner on the earth, blow a trumpet among the nations, arm the nations against it, call upon it the kingdoms of Ararat, Miniz and Ashkenaz...”. These lines were interpreted by the famous Saadia Gaon, the spiritual mentor of Eastern Jews, in the 10th century as a prophecy relating to his, Saadia's, times. Babylon, according to him, symbolizes the Baghdad Caliphate, and the Ashkenazi, which was supposed to attack it, symbolizes the Jews or some allied tribe. Accordingly, as the historian Polyak writes, “some enlightened Jews (settled in the Khazar Kaganate), who knew about the Gaon’s theory, called themselves “Ashkenazim” when they emigrated to Poland.”
Many Polish historians believe that the bulk of Ashkenazim come from Khazaria and that Eastern European Jews do not come from the Franco-Rhine community, but ended up in the East. Europe through the Khazar Khaganate, which gave shelter to refugees from Byzantium. Until the 15th century. Jews mainly lived in Austria-Hungary, Spain, Italy and the Balkans. Then they were deported to Poland, Italy and Hungary. Alpine settlements were the western outskirts of Khazaria. The Romanian legend tells about the invasion of the Jews on their land, as well as the fact that Austria in pre-Christian times was ruled by Jewish princes (Shennan, Zippan, Lapton, Maalon, Rapton, Efra, Raybon, Samek). It is worth dwelling on the opinion of Polish historians and paying attention to the fact that for more than half a century (until 955), part of the lands of Austria, right up to the Inne River, was under the Hungarian yoke. The Magyars (Hungarians) came to the Danube in 896 along with the Khazar (Bulgars, Pechenegs) tribes, which were very influential among the Hungarians.
The Hungarians at that time had not yet accepted Christianity (this happened later, a hundred years later - in 1000). The only one monotheistic religion, known to them then, was Judaism, the official belief of the Khazars, who, not wanting to become dependent on Papal Italy, Byzantium and Mecca, chose a non-centralized religion. Those. Hungarians practiced Judaism for some time.
As a result of the anti-Jewish (there were no complaints against Jews as a people) policy of Catholicism in the 16-17 centuries. mass emigration of people of different nationalities professing Judaism began from Spain and Italy to Hungary, Romania and Germany. This is how the “Great Exodus” took place, which lasted another three centuries, until the Second World War, and it was the main source of the emergence of “Jewish” settlements in Europe and the USA. For the purposes of segregation, the Church recommended giving ghetto residents new characteristic surnames and endings containing the names of natural phenomena or plants (for Germany) or an indication of territorial origin (for Poland). Thus, the surname cannot serve as an indication of Jewish origin, because Not only Jews lived in the ghetto (shtetl), but also Christians who did not agree with the regime, migrants and the poor.
In Germany: -bach (stream), -baum (tree), apfel- (apple), -stein (stone), -man (man from such and such a ghetto), -feld (field), -dorf (), - burg (indication of the city), -berg (mountain), -land (land) and others, including surnames indicating the professional affiliation of a ghetto resident (Schneider - tailor, Potter - potter).
In Poland: the endings “-ski” (the Russified form is “-ski”) and “-ovich/-evich” (with emphasis on “o” and “e”) were added.
From what was written above, it follows that in Eastern Europe a unique ethnic group was being formed, consisting of ethnic Jews, Khazars, Hungarians and representatives of other nationalities, including Germans, Lithuanians and Poles who professed Judaism. This group was called "Ashkenazi". The bulk of Jews in the USA and South America come from Eastern Europe. During the years of the fascist dictatorship, all people with Middle Eastern or Mongoloid features, etc., were subjected to extermination. all Jews, regardless of nationality.
The main language of communication among Ashkenazis is Yiddish (cf. German "jiddisch" - "Jewish"). It is an eastern dialect of the Central German language (Austria, Bavaria) with an admixture of Jewish, Turkic, Slavic and other words.
It is divided into two dialects: Western Yiddish (Northern Europe, Baltic states) and Eastern Yiddish (Israel). The famous burr accent (grassive "r") is characteristic of speakers of many European languages ​​- French and German, including Yiddish.
Historian A.N. The Pole put forward a noteworthy, although rather controversial, additional hypothesis regarding the roots of Yiddish. He believes that “the first signs of Yiddish appeared in the Ostrogothic colonies of the Khazar Crimea. There, the lifestyle of the population forced them to communicate in a dialect that included German and Hebrew; this was hundreds of years before Jewish settlements appeared in Poland and Lithuania.” .
There are Ashkenazi Courland, Galytsianer and Lytvaks. Religiously, Ashkenazim are divided into Mistagnadim and Hasidim.
Anthropologically, the Ashkenazis are heterogeneous, which is quite explainable by their mixed composition. The French historian Ernest Renan identifies three anthropotypes of Jews, but in fact the majority of Ashkenazim belong to the Armenoid type and its mestizos with the local population. There is an Ashkenazi variety of the Armenoid type. Red hair is often considered a sign of Jews, which is incorrect, because... Red hair color is not a racial characteristic, but is a manifestation of the so-called. rutilism (erythrism), etc. how white hair is a symptom of albinism.
* * *
O Sephardi (Franco, Mizrahi).
Descendants of Jews, immigrants from Judea, from ancient times lived in Spain (in Hebrew - Sepharad) until at the end of the 15th century they were expelled and settled in neighboring countries of the Mediterranean, in the Balkans and a little less in Western Europe. In the period before the expulsion from Spain, Jews began to receive new surnames from the Catholic Church, denoting natural phenomena and plants (Perez - “pear”, etc.). The reason for the hatred was not only the confession of non-Christianity, but also the fact that the Jews (as an ethnic group) reminded the Spaniards of the rule of the Arabs, just like the Jews, who belong partly to the Armenoid type, and partly to the Semitic-Arabian type (Pamir -Ferghana and Ethiopian racial elements). The Jews of Turkey and the Balkans are often called Mizrahi, the French - Franco.
Sephardic languages:
Ladino (Spagnol) is the language of the Jews of Spain, Portugal, the Balkans, the Middle East, North Africa, Greece and Turkey. Represents an archaic form of the Castilian dialect of medieval Spanish with Semitic elements.
Shuadit (Judeo-Contadine, Jewish-Provençal) - the language was widespread in the south of France. Extinct by 1977, remained in Jewish Passover songs.
Zarfatik (Jewish-French) - dead language of Northern French Jews
Mozarabic - used in the Middle Ages by Christians during Arab rule in Spain. Exclusively ancient Latin forms of Spanish with many Arabic loanwords. In Spain, it is occasionally used for liturgical purposes; Radio Israel broadcasts on it.
Jewish-Italian - Jews of Italy and Malta.
In 1960, the Sephardim numbered 500 thousand people, of whom only a third belonged to the Armenoid anthropological type, a third were proselytes, and a third were descendants of Europeans who converted to Judaism and did not have Middle Eastern anthropological features, i.e. were not Jews as such.
* * *
O Yahudi (Jews of Central Asia).
- lahluhi - Kurdish Jews (Kurdish-Jewish language)
- Jedids - Turkestan Muslim Jews (Jedi<персидско-еврейский>language)
- djeet - Kyrgyz Jews (Kyrgyz-Jewish language)
- Bukharan Jews (Tajik-Jewish language)
- Jamshids - Afghan Muslim Jews (Afghan-Jewish language)
- Chala - Bukharian Muslim Jews (Tajik-Jewish language)
Jews appeared in Central Asia in the 5th century. AD Large communities formed throughout the Bukhara Emirate. During the Muslim conquest in the 6th-8th centuries. AD many local Jews converted to Islam. Initially they spoke Persian-Jewish, and in the 16th-18th centuries. formed into a special ethnic group speaking the Tajik-Jewish language. The term “Bukharian Jews” arose in the 19th century, when the Russian Empire began to distinguish between the “native” Jews of Central Asia and those newly arriving from the Middle East.
In Muslim Central Asia, Jews<по-арабски - “яхуди”>and Christians<по-арабски - “насара”>were in semi-vassal dependence and were called “dhimmiyyah” (“people of the Book”, i.e. the Holy Scripture in one form or another). They were required to pay tax (jizya) and enjoyed certain restrictions. In the 18th century In some areas, the forced Islamization of Jews who professed Judaism began. New converts were required, under threat of death, to pronounce several phrases in Arabic- symbol of faith. In Central Asia, Islamized Jews were called “chala” (from Taj. “neither this nor that”), in Iran and Turkmenistan - “Jedid ul-Islami” (converts to Islam). The Chalas and Jedids were subjected to discrimination both from Muslims and from former co-religionists - Jews. In 1910, Muslim Jews numbered about several thousand. The main occupation was the trade in Persian carpets.
The number of all Jews in Central Asia is no more than 200 thousand people. Many of them (especially Muslims) are gradually merging with the local population. Anthropologically - various types of the Indo-Mediterranean branch: medium and tall height, black hair and eyes, hairy body, mustache, beard, straight narrow nose, face both wide and narrow.
* * *
O Samuran (Chinese Jews).
The first Jews entered China under Emperor Ming Di at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, when the Roman emperor Titus destroyed Jerusalem and the population had to flee to the east. In Europe, the existence of Chinese Jews became known only in the 17th century. The main area of ​​accommodation in China is Henan Province in the center (Kaifeng city). The number is about 3 thousand people. Anthropologically, Armenoid features are well preserved. They dress in the Chinese style and wear long braids. They do not stand out from other religious minorities - they are considered an Islamic sect of “blue Muslims” (based on the color of the rabbis’ headdress). Judaism in Chinese is sometimes called Xian, sometimes - Tiao-Jin-Jiao (“those who choose the confession of the veins” - a hint that, according to religious law, the food of a Jew must be kosher, i.e. prepared in a special way, for example, meat must be without tendons and blood). The synagogue is called li-bai-sy (“place of worship”). The phrase “se-mu-ran” is translated from Chinese as “people with colored eyes” (brown and dark green eyes were rare for the Chinese).
* * *
O Tats (dzhukhur, tat, bik):
Under the ethnonym “Tat” there are currently several ethnic groups that should be distinguished: Tats-Gregorians, Tats-Muslims, Tats-Jews of Azerbaijan and Mountain Jews of the North Caucasus. The history of the Tats began in 527, when Shah Khosrow I Anushirvan began the fight against religious minorities: Christians, Mazdakids and Jews, who were subjected to massive repression. In 531, the Jewish state of Eretz Israel in the south of Mesopotamia was destroyed. About 300 thousand non-Zoroastrians were deported to the Caucasus in the area between Derbent and the Absheron Peninsula north of the Araks. These lands have been empty for the last few centuries. Judeans (mostly ethnic Jews) were settled in Derbent and nearby Tabasaran lands. Christians (ethnic Persians) were settled on the southern slopes of the Dagestan mountains. The Mazdakids (aka ethnic Persians) occupied Absheron. The displaced Christians and Mazdakids spoke Western Persian; the Jews spoke the same dialect, but with significant Jewish elements. South of the Araks lived the Atropatenes (ancestors of the Talysh).
a) Muslim Tats (TM).
Until the 9th century AD the population of the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea was known as “Lbins” (LPink, Chilb, Slvov, Lupeni) - according to Armenian sources and as “Parsis” - according to Persian ones. There was also a collective term “tat” in use, which the Turkic peoples used to call the Persians. Jews, unlike Muslims, were also called “dzhuhur” (from Arabic “giaur” - non-religious). In the 9th century AD with the formation of the state of the Shirvanshahs, the ethnonym “Lbins” was supplanted by a new term - “Shirvans”. The leading role in Shirvan was played by the former Mazdakids who converted to Shiite Islam. The descendants of Christian Persians and Jews lived autonomously. During the rule of the Seljuk Turks, TM established friendly relations with them. As a result of the long cohabitation of Muslim Tats and Seljuks, they had many common features in culture and way of life - together they (plus some of the Talysh) formed the ethnic basis of the Azerbaijani ethnic group. Among the TMs, the Seljuk language became so widespread that it produced changes in ethnic consciousness - many abandoned the Tat language and subsequently began to call themselves “Azerbaijanis.” However, a small part of TM has retained its language and identity. In the 19th century, during the Russian conquest of the city of Baku and its environs, its entire population (8 thousand people) were Muslim Tats. Currently, there are about 12 thousand speakers of the Tat language in Azerbaijan (southern dialects, including dialects of the Christian Tat). The majority live in Absheron, in the Ismayilli, Divichi and Kubinsky (together with the Tatami Jews of Azerbaijan) regions. However, among the remaining TMs there is no single ethnic consciousness: TMs of the Ismailli region call themselves “Lohujs”, TMs of the Absheron Peninsula call themselves “Parsis”.
b) Tata Christians of the Monophysite branch (TH).
Christians from Iran who settled at the foot of the mountains quickly established connections with other co-religionists of Transcaucasia: Georgians, Udins (descendants of Caucasian Albanians) and, especially, Armenians. TH, like TM, did not have a single identity: the inhabitants of each settlement had their own ethnonym. However, the surrounding peoples did not distinguish them from other Iranian-speaking peoples. They spoke two dialects of the Tat language: Kilvar and Matras, which they called “Farsi” and “Parseren”. In the 20th century, Christian Tats Armenianized, switched to the Armenian language and began to call themselves “Armenians.” Before the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict, they lived in the villages of Matrasa, Khachmas and Kilvar in the center and north-west. Azerbaijan. Currently they live in Russia and Armenia (the villages of Novaya Matrasa and Dprevan). The number is not known for certain (they are gradually assimilated by the Armenians).
c) Tati-Jews of Azerbaijan (TI) and “Mountain Jews”.
Immediately after the resettlement, the Jews quickly established contacts with the local population and the Khazar Kaganate. Over the first hundred years, Jews penetrated from the Caspian coast into the interior regions of the Caucasus: Karachay, Balkaria, Chechnya. They lived in separate communities, but willingly accepted mountaineers converting to Judaism into their ranks. The conversion of some mountain tribes to Judaism led to the possibility of mixed marriages between Jews and mountain people, which affected the anthropological appearance of the Jews of the North Caucasus. During the Caucasian War, many Jews were forcibly converted to Islam. The process of mixing and changing religions did not affect the ethnic identity of the Jewish Tats of the North Caucasus, who still consider themselves part of the Jewish people, calling themselves “Mountain Jews,” and some even maintain ties with Israel. For the first time, the term “Mountain Jews” was used in relation to the Tat-Jews of the North Caucasus in the 19th century, but did not become widespread among the Caucasian peoples, therefore the TIs are known among their neighbors as “jut, dzhuhur, juhud, tat, tutuajikli chuut, bik, dag-chufurt, ibirli tatuajikli.” The total number of Tat Jews and Mountain Jews is about 20 thousand people, however, their number is constantly decreasing due to migration and assimilation.
Languages:
Tat and Tato-Hebrew languages ​​belong to the southwestern subgroup of the Iranian group. This same subgroup includes Tajik, Persian (Farsi), Afghan (Dari) and other languages.
- Muslim Tats and Jewish Tats of Azerbaijan speak the northern Azerbaijani language and dialects of the Tat language.
- Mountain Jews speak dialects of the Tato-Jewish language.
- Christian Tats speak Armenian and (very rarely) two dialects of Tat (called “Farsi” or “Parseren” by them): Kilvar and Matras.
Until the beginning of the 20th century, there was a folk supra-dialectal language common to all Tats of Azerbaijan - Zeboni Imrani.
Dialects of the Tat language (southern dialects):
Devechi, Konakend, Kyzyl-Kazman, Arushkush-Daakushchus (Khyzy), Absheron, Balakhani, Surakhani, Lahyi, Malkham, Kilvar, Matrassky.
Tato-Jewish dialects (northern dialects):
Derbent, Makhachkala-Nalchik, Cuban (Cuba in Azerbaijan).
Anthropology:
- Muslim Tats - Caspian anthropotype
- Tats-Jews of Azerbaijan - Armenoid type, there are mestizos with the Caspian.
- Mountain Jews - for the most part belong to the mixed Armenoid-Caucasian type.
- Gregorian Tats - very heterogeneous: Caspian and Armenoid types, etc. their mestizos.
Number:
The number is not known for certain.
Officially, there are about 30 thousand native speakers of the Tat language and about 101 thousand native speakers of the Tato-Jewish language.
* * *
O Assyrians (Aysors, Chaldeans, Athurayas, Surayas, Suryanis, Nestorians).
The Assyrians are descendants of the Arameans (see above). All dialects and variants of the ancient Aramaic language can be divided into two large groups: Western Aramaic (Palestine, Galilee, Damascus) and Eastern Aramaic (Syria and Babylon). With the arrival of the Arabs (7th century AD), the decline of Aramaic began. In the Middle Ages, the Arameans began to call themselves "Assyrians", having no relation to the Akkadian people of the Assyrians. Assyrian is most likely a territorial ethnonym (Syria, As-Syriyya). The Arameans-“Assyrians” adopted Christianity, and therefore began to be persecuted by Muslims. One of the groups of eastern Arameans fled to Russia at the beginning of the 20th century and settled in Kuban.
Dialects of New Aramaic:
eastern dialects - northern regions of Iraq and Iran
- Mandaean dialect
- Syriac dialect
Western dialects - Syria, Palestine, Lebanon
- Palmyra dialect (Lebanon)
- Nabatean dialect (Saudi Arabia)
- Palestinian dialect
- Samaritan dialect
Aysor dialects - Caucasus, Türkiye, Russian Federation
The literary language was developed in the 19th century. based on the Urmian dialect of Aramaic.
Anthropologically they belong to the Armenoid type of the Balkan-Caucasian branch.
The script is Estrangello (based on Assyrian).
Religion: believers - Nestorians (Eastern Syrian Church) and Jacobites (Western Syriac Church).
Often Assyrians are identified with Jews and Armenians, because they have the same racial characteristics, preserved even in greater purity, and also due to the fact that the Armenoid facial structure and nose shape during cross-breeding dominate over similar characteristics of any other type of Pamir-Fergana, Mediterranean and Balkan -Caucasian branch.
The number is about 350 thousand people.
Created in 1968, the Assyrian Universal Alliance (AUA) organization aims to create a semi-autonomous state on the historical territory. The forces of the Assyrian Democratic Movement are fighting on the side of the Kurdish rebels.
* * *
O Karaites.
Karaites (Karaites, Karaylar) translated from Hebrew means “honoring”, “honoring” - originally, a sect in Judaism created in the second half of the 8th century AD. Anan Ganasi ben David in Baghdad. During the Jewish religious schism, some believers were unhappy that the Talmud (oral laws) had become holy book. At first the sect was called Ananites, and later - Karaites, as opposed to Rabbanites. Gradually, Karaiteism is spreading among Jews. Since the 16th century, written sources have recorded Karaites in Crimea. As a result of the policy of the princes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to attract the trade and craft population, they appear in the territories of modern Lithuania, Western Ukraine, Poland, where they still live. During the period of the Crimean Khanate, there were Karaite communities in Chufut-Kale, Mangup, Gezlev (Evpatoria), Solkhat (Old Crimea), Cafe (Feodosia). Over time, the ethnic-religious community lost its ethnic features. The spoken language is the Karaite dialect of Crimean Tatar, which is now spoken by about 2.5 thousand people, and about 500 consider it their native language. The language of religious rituals is Hebrew. Relocation to Lithuania and the West. Ukraine served as the basis for the emergence of two Western dialects, which retained a number of archaic features, but were influenced by surrounding peoples, which led to a significant change in a number of structural features of the language. The dialect of the Crimean Karaites experienced a strong assimilation influence of the Crimean Tatar language. That. a single ethnic group does not have a common literary and spoken language. Previously, the square Hebrew letter was used.
Dialects of the Karaite language: western (Trakai and Galician dialects), eastern (Crimean) dialect - grammatically Crimean Tatar language with a large number of borrowings from the Hebrew language.
After the annexation of Crimea to Russia (with its official anti-Semitism), the Karaites constantly sought to emphasize their difference from the Jews, asking and receiving various benefits and privileges from the authorities. In the 19th century, the famous Karaite collector of antiquities A.S. Firkovich put forward a hypothesis about the appearance in the 6th century BC. in Crimea, together with the troops of the Persian king Kambuz, the Israelis of the Babylonian captivity, who, adopting customs and language from the local Turkic population, mixed with the Khazars, forming the Karaite ethnic group. It was emphasized that these Israelis came to Crimea before the Nativity of Christ and were not involved in the crucifixion of Christ. During the Second World War, the Karaites in Crimea, unlike the Jews and Crimeans, were not exterminated by the Nazis. With the exception of a few dozen, they were not expelled from Crimea in the forties. Modern Karaites, including people from Crimea, also live in Israel (about 20 thousand people), Istanbul, Paris, and there are small communities in the USA, Canada, and Australia. In total there are about 50 thousand people. For the most part, they consider themselves part of the Jewish people, differing solely in their religion and anthropology. Racially, the Karaites are heterogeneous: Mongoloid, Alpine and Armenoid elements are present. Most researchers belong to the Turkic group of the Altai language family and are placed on a par with the Crimean Tatars, from whom they differ in religion.
Karaite surnames represent Turkic professional terms, names are often ecclesiastical and Jewish.
* * *
O Krymchaks.
“Krymchaks” is the self-name of the people (according to the 1989 census - 1448 people), which formed in the medieval period on the territory of the Crimean Peninsula as an ethno-confessional community of different ethnic admirers of the reformed Jewish ritual. The ethnonym “Krymchak” first appeared in official documents of the Russian Empire in 1859. This word was introduced by the Russian administration of Crimea to distinguish this Jewish group from the Jews who began to move to the territory of Crimea from Russia and Poland from the end of the 19th century and from the Karaites.
IN early XIX V. in a letter to Emperor Alexander I, the Crimeans themselves call themselves “dzhemaatyndan beni israelyn kyrym adasyndan sheerinden Karasubazarnyn” - “the society of the sons of Israel of the city of Karasubazar” and “yahudiler Karasu” - “the Jews of Karasubazar” (in Crimean Tatar). Other names: “Kyrymchakh”, “Krymchak Jews”, “Constantinople Jews”, “Turkish Jews”, “Tatar Jews”, and in contrast to the neighboring Karaites - “Crimean Rabbanites”, “Crimean rabbinists”.
For a long time it was believed that the ancestors of the Krymchaks were Jewish settlers of the ancient cities of Crimea from the first centuries AD, the Khazars and Khazar Jews; Crimean Karaites; Jewish prisoners of war brought to Crimea in the 13th century. Tatars; Turkish Jews who arrived in Crimea after the conquest of the peninsula by the Turkish Empire at the end of the 15th century. and so on. In the early 1920s. famous Turkologist academician A.N. Samoilovich, based on a study of the vocabulary of the Krymchaks, expressed his point of view regarding the latter’s belonging to the Khazar culture. Studies of blood groups conducted by V. Zabolotny allowed him to conclude that the Krymchaks do not belong to the Semitic peoples. The results of studies of the anthropometry of the Krymchaks conducted by N. Terebinskaya-Shenger also confirmed this conclusion. Later, in the 60s, anthropometric measurements of the Crimeans by V.D. Dyachenko gave the same results.
The formation of the ethno-confessional community of the Crimeans was associated with a number of factors, the main ones of which were: the emergence of the Jewish diaspora on the territory of the Crimean peninsula in the first century. AD and the spread of Judaism among other ethnic groups living in Crimea as a result of proselytism in late antiquity and the medieval period of history.
There is several evidence of proselytism in the Jewish communities of the Bosphorus Kingdom (located on the territory of the Kerch Peninsula) in the first centuries. AD A group of inscriptions informs about the release of slaves on the condition that they visit a Jewish house of worship in a free state. If this condition was not met by the latter, they again returned to a slave state. That is, we are talking about forced proselytism. The language of these inscriptions is ancient Greek, as are the names of the Jews who “granted” freedom to the slaves.
The arrival of the Turkic language on the territory of Crimea is associated with the raids of the Huns and other Turkic peoples at the end of the 4th century. AD in the 5th century The Khazars established themselves here. There is evidence that the first Khazars were converted to Judaism in 610. In 650, the Khazar Khagant was formed, and in 730, Khan Bulan made Judaism the state ideology. Jewish communities also existed in Kievan Rus, but there the majority were also proselytes. Under the Byzantine Emperor Roman I, thousands of Jews of Sephardic origin fled to Crimea and Khazaria. In 965, the capital of Khazaria, the city of Itil, which they inherited from the Huns, was destroyed by Muslim tribes from Central Asia. Ethnic Khazars converted to Islam, and ethnic Jews and Khazars who refused to change religion fled to the North Caucasus. Prince Oleg, “taking revenge on the foolish Khazars,” no longer took revenge on the Jews, but on the Muslims.
During the 10th-13th centuries, as a result of the penetration of the Pechenegs and Cumans into the territory of Crimea, Turkic languages, pagan cults and rituals influenced the consciousness of local peoples.
Nazi Germany, having occupied, among other lands, the USSR and the Crimean Peninsula, carried out the genocide of the Crimeans, as adherents of Orthodox Judaism. According to estimates, before the Great Patriotic War there were about 9,000 representatives of this nationality; the 1959 census noted about 2,000 people.
The Crimean language belongs to the Kipchak-Polovtsian subgroup of Turkic languages ​​(together with the Tatars, North Caucasian Turks and Kazakhs) and is close to the Crimean Tatar, from which it differs only slightly, like the Karaite language.
Anthropologically, the Krymchaks are close to other Crimean peoples and represent a historical mixture of the Mongoloid race with the North Pontic and Armenoid types of the Caucasian race. Sometimes a specific mixed or transitional Crimean type is distinguished.
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That. in Crimea there are 3 groups of peoples professing Judaism: ethnic Crimean Jews (traditional Judaism of the Rabbani branch; Armenoid anthropotype), Krymchaks - descendants of Turkic peoples (traditional Judaism of the Rabbani branch; Crimean mixed anthropotype), Karaites - descendants of Turkic peoples (Judaism of the Karaite branch; Crimean mixed anthropotype).
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O Ebraeli (Georgian Jews).
The number in Georgia is 14.31 thousand people, in Russia - 1,172 people. Until the 1970s lived mainly in Georgia, some in Armenia. They speak the Kivruli (i.e. Hebrew) jargon, which includes many roots from the Hebrew language. Most surnames have “-shvili” endings.
Armenoid anthroptype.

ANTHROPOLOGY: Armenoid type
The original carriers of this type were the ancient Nostrati (read “Macrofamilies”), who lived from Palestine (pre-Kartveli-Rephaim) to Mesopotamia and the Zagros ridge in Iran (ancient Semites) and Alarodia (Sino-Caucasians). The type formed the basis of the types of the Pamir-Fergana branch (mixing with the Veddoids of the Australoid race in Iran and India), including the Semitic-Arabian (mixing the Armenoids with the Ethiopians in South Arabia). Described in 1911 by von Luschan. In many respects, the Armenoid type is close to the Caucasian type (Chechnya, Dagestan, Mountainous Georgia, Karachay, Balkaria) and the Dinaric type (Balkans, northern Italy, southern France, Western Ukraine, western Turkey), but are distinguished by their small stature, the shape of the nose and the plane of the back of the head. Other names for this type: Near Asian, Alarodian, Syrian-Zagros, Semitic, Pontic-Zagros, Hittite, Assyrioid, Tauride. Deniker called this type Assyrioid and believed that it was characterized by a straight, narrow nose. There is a cluster division into Asia Minor, Iberian-Caucasian, Ashkenazi (according to the classification of A. Schneider) and Central Armenoid clusters. Asia Minor (some of the Turks and Cypriots) have significant Dinaric and Mediterranean (Cappadocia) elements, which is expressed in taller stature and a straight or “Dinaric” nose. The frequency of occurrence of a straight bridge of the nose has no geographical reference; this is due to the frequent cross-breeding of Armenians and Jews with other peoples (mainly if representatives of another people profess Judaism and Gregorianism, since religious affiliation among these peoples is often identified with ethnicity). Albinos occur, usually within a central cluster - Armenoid features plus blond hair and eyes. For peoples of the Armenoid type, the most characteristic is the second blood group.
Central Armenoid cluster:
<Армяне, турки (центр и восток страны), нахичеванские азербайджанцы, турки-месхетинцы, евреи Израиля, сирийско-палестинские арабы (Палестина, Сирия, Ливан, Иордания), некоторые западноиранские народы (луры, бахтиары, курды), в Грузии - джавахи и месхи>
- Height is low.
- Thick-boned physique.
- The hair is black, coarse, curly.
- The palpebral fissure is wide, the location of the eyes is “Anterior Asian” - the outer corner of the eyes is lower than the inner.
- Eye shades: most often black, but there are also exotic colors (dark blue, matte green, black with turquoise).
- Brachycephaly (cranial index - 86-87)
- The face is oval, wide, low. The eyebrows are arched. Cheekbones do not protrude.
- The chin is small, not protruding. The jaw is wide, not of the “Baltic” type.
- The nose is long, protruding, wide. Profile: convex, hump in the middle third of the back. The tip is bent downwards. The nasal septum is visible.
- Lips are thick. The upper one protrudes above the lower one.
- Strongly developed hairline (hair extending onto the forehead, fused eyebrows, hair on the back).
- The flat back of the head is a distinctive element of the Near Asian type.
- The ears are small, often without lobes.
Ashkenazi cluster (differences from the central one):
It is advisable to distinguish this type, since signs of a mixture of the Nordic and Western Asian races are often passed off as Semitic.
<Евреи-ашкенази в Европе и США>
- High and average height.
- Hair blonde.
- Blue eyes.
- The nose is narrow, long, straight. The profile is straight and convex (arched).
- Straight eyebrows.
- Narrow and long face.
- Convex nape.
- Thin lips.
- Narrow lower jaw, sharp, prominent chin.
- The hairline is developed normally.
Tay-Sachs disease.
1 in 3,600 Ashkenazi and French-Canadian children is affected. Fat breakdown products accumulate in body tissues. Children are delayed in development, paralysis and blindness develop. They don't live to see 3 years of age. The disease is determined by examining placental cells before birth.

JEWISH NAMES AND SURNAMES
Jews of the CIS
The surname Levin is most common among Jews of the former USSR. There is the same Russian nomographic Christian surname. For the most part, it is found in Russia; it is not typical for Ukraine (the Russian surname should be read LEVIN, because it goes back not to the tribe of Levi, but to the male diminutive Lev, from Lev, as this name was pronounced in Old Russian). In Ukraine, the surname Ostrovsky is very common among both Christians and Jews. In 1915, 23 Jews and 32 Christians with this surname were recorded in the Kyiv address book. In 1914, the Ostrovskys lived in Odessa: 18 Jews and 16 Christians. Both Jews and Christians could have surnames such as Slutsky, Zaslavsky and Kanevsky, but more often they were borne by Jews. There are also Christians with the surnames Reznik(s), Brodsky and Chernyak, but their number in large cities is smaller compared to Jews with the same surnames. The number of Christians of German descent with surnames such as Feldman, Friedman, Greenberg, Rosenberg and Schwartz is also quite small compared to the number of Jews with the same surnames. In Soviet folklore, Rabinovich is the most common Jewish surname. This can be concluded from the fact that in most Soviet jokes “about Jews”, the main character is Rabinovich. Here is an example of such an anecdote: A tourist approaches a house in Odessa and asks the woman from this house: “How can I find Shapiro’s apartment?” The woman answers him: “Shout “Rabinovich!” The only window that won't open will be Shapiro's apartment. Typical Belarusian and Lithuanian surnames such as Kagan, Joffe, Gorelik, Shifrin, Khanin, Gurvich are also found in St. Petersburg. The Moscow list contains the typical Ukrainian and Moldovan-Romanian Jewish surname Grinberg. However, some Jewish surnames, typical only for Belarus and Lithuania, such as Epstein, Ginzburg and Gurevich are among the 10 most common surnames not only in St. Petersburg, but also in Moscow. The surname Kogan (from southern Ukraine and Bessarabia) is more typical than its Belarusian and Lithuanian equivalent Kagan, in both Moscow and Leningrad.
The most common surnames among Jews in the Russian Federation, Belarus and Ukraine:
Levin, Kogan (Kagan), Shapiro, Gurevich, Rabinovich, Lifshitz (Lipshitz and Livshits - Ukraine), Friedman, Katz, Ginzburg, Ioffe, Epstein, Feldman, Reznik(s), Grinberg, Chernyak, Brodsky (in Ukraine), Gorelik (s), Belenky, Pevzner (Posner), Kaplan, Rosenberg, Weinstein, Kanevsky, Heifetz, Warshavsky, Gold(en)berg, Spektor, Weissman, Steinberg, Schwartz(man), Zaslavsky, Keiman, Shoikhet, Goldstein, Krichevsky, Slutsky, Ostrovsky, Tseytlin, Galperin, Khaikin, Lurie, Lokshin, Lieberman, Shifrin, Finkelstein, Rappoport, Khanin, Gurvich, Spivak(s), Rosenberg, Yanpolsky, Polyak, Faktorovich.
Krymchaks.
The most common are Levi, Bakshi, Achkinazi (Ashkenazi), Mizrahi, Piastro, Gurji, Passover, Purim, Berman, Manto. There are 228 known surnames, which can be divided into several groups based on origin.
1). Surnames from words and names in Hebrew (30% of the family fund and 40% of Crimeans, according to the 1913 census).
- surnames associated with the traditional structure of the Jewish community: Cohen (priest), Levi (priest), Gabai (elder), Neaman (treasurer), Rebi (teacher), Chakham (clergy minister), Shamash (synagogue servant).
- surnames from honorary titles: Avraben, Bentovim, Behar, Moskil, Rabenu.
- on behalf of the father: Abaev, Asherov, Bokhorov, Meshlam, Samoilovich, Urilevich.
- from the names of religious holidays: Purim, Passover.
- ethnonymic: Mizrahi, Ashkenazi. The surname Ashkenazi appeared in Central Europe in the 13th century; since the 15th century, Ashkenazi have been known in Crimea. Mirahi has been known since the 17th century.
Krymchaks of Ashkenazi origin are characterized by the surnames Peisakh, Neiman, Kogan and Sholom.
For Crimeans of Sephardic origin - Passover, Naaman, Behar, Cohen, Meshulam and Shalom, Avraben (from the Spanish name Abrabanel), Tabon (from the name of the Ibn-Tibbonid dynasty), Masot (from the Arabic Masud).
2). Surnames based on Turkic roots (30% of the family fund and 33% Crimeans).
- surnames by occupation: Atar (pharmacist), Bakshi (teacher), Biberji (pepper grower), Kagya (manager), Kolpakchi (hat maker), Penerji (cheese maker), Saraf (money changer), Taukchi (bird breeder).
- By characteristic features: Abrashev (leper), Karagyoz (black-eyed), Kokoz (blue-eyed), Kose (beardless), Hafuz (scientist), Chibar (pockmarked).
- from names: Valit, Hondo.
- ethnonymic: Gurji (Georgian), Lekhno (Pole), Franco (French), Jude (Spanish Jew). Gurji are widely known in the Balkans; Lehno appeared in the 17th century.
There are many double surnames, the first part of which means origin (Lombroso, Ashkenazi, Gurji, Izmerli, Levi), and the second part means the nickname received in the Crimea.
3). Surnames based on Romanesque roots (20% of the fund, 15% Krymchaks).
- Angel (literal translation of the Hebrew name Malachi - “angel”), Conort (translation of the name Menachem), Lombroso (translation of the name Ariel), Suruzhin - from the Spanish language.
- Confino (exile), Manto, Piastro, Trevgoda (on behalf of Torquato) - from Italian.
- Peaget (tax collector) - from French.
4). Based on Yiddish and Slavic languages, etc. toponyms (6% of the fund and 4% of Krymchaks).
Yiddish - Berman, Beer (translation of the Hebrew name Dov), Gutman (translation of the name Tobias), Nudel (needle), Fischer (fisherman), Flisfeder (fin).
Slavic - Lobak, Solovyov (in Ukraine, in Russia the Russian surname Solovyov is common), Turkin, Chernov.
Toponyms - Gotta, Vernadsky, Weinberg, Warsaw, Livshits. Lurie.
Mountain Jews.
The surnames of Mountain Jews were most often formed from the name of the grandfather, as among the Nakh-Dagestan peoples (Elizarov, Anisimov). In Karachay and Circassia, Jews retained the name of a common ancestor (Bogatyryovs, Mirzakhanovs) in their surnames. In Azerbaijan, Tato-Jewish surnames were formed according to the Turkic principle (Nisim-ogly). Initially, Tao-Hebrew did not have a category of surname, only patronymic (ben Abraham, bat Simcha). Surnames were not formed from female names, unlike the Ashkenazis (who have Rozovs and Sarins). Other famous mountain-Jewish surnames: Isupovs, Shamilovs, Ikhilovs, Gurshumovs, Rakhanaevs, Musayevs, Kudenetovs, Gilyadovs.

The first state in Palestine was created:

A) Philistines

B) Jews

B) Assyrians

D) Persians.

2. Which city became the capital of the Kingdom of Israel:

A) Jerusalem

B) Thebes

B) Babylon

D) Nineveh

3. The first occupation of the Jewish tribes was:

A) agriculture

B) cattle breeding

B) navigation

D) craft

4. Indicate the name of the first ruler of Israel (Palestine):

A) Moses

B) Israel

B) Saul

D) David

5. After Saul, the kingdom of Israel began to be ruled by:

A) Moses

B) Israel

B) Saul

D) David

6. Indicate the name of the king who became famous in the kingdom of Israel for his wisdom and wealth:

A) Moses

B) Saul

B) Solomon

D) David.

7. After the death of Solomon, his state:

A) died under the pressure of enemies

B) split into the kingdoms of Judah and Israel

B) became subordinate to the Egyptian pharaohs

D) continued to expand its borders

8. Indicate the name of a king who never ruled the kingdom of Israel:

A) Ashurbanipal

B) Solomon

B) Saul

D) David

9. Indicate the name of the people who were the first in the world to come to monotheism, or belief in one God:

A) Philistines

B) Persians

B) the Romans

D) Jews

10. The word “Bible” translated from ancient Greek means:

A) book

B) laws

B) commandments

D) rules.

11. The first part of the Bible - the Old Testament - contains myths and legends:

A) Philistines

B) Persians

B) Romans

D) Jews

12.The rules given to Moses by God Yahweh are called:

A) commandments

B) laws

B) agreement

D) covenant

13. What does the word “covenant” mean?

A) commandments

B) laws

B) agreement

D) rules

14. Indicate the name of the person who escaped during the Flood by building the ark:

A) Abraham

B) Israel

B) Noah

D) Samuel

15. Indicate the second name of Jacob, the son of Abraham, from whom the name of the entire nation came:

A) Moses

B) Israel

B) Saul

D) David

2. Two-choice tests (answer “Yes” or “No”)

1. The Jews were the first people to come to monotheism.

2. Palestine is separated from Egypt by the Red Sea.

3. Belief in one god - Yahweh - contributed to the unification of Jewish tribes and the creation of a state.

4. The Jordan River flows into the Red Sea.

5. Israel reached its peak during the reign of kings David and Solomon (son of David).

6. Israel reached its peak in the 10th century BC. e.

7. Palestine got its name from the name of the Jewish tribe.

8. After the death of King Solomon, the country was divided into two rival kingdoms - Judah and Israel.

9. The most beautiful and famous temple in Israel was the Temple of Solomon, dedicated to God Yahweh.

10. Jerusalem was destroyed in 597 BC by the Babylonian soldiers of King Nebuchadnezzar.

3. Solve the fillword

Moving horizontally or vertically, collect words from the letters that are associated with the most ancient period in the history of Palestine. Color each word with your own color. Remember: each letter can only be used once, and can only be moved horizontally or vertically.