Claude Henri Saint Simon. Early socialism

Henri Saint-Simon(1760-1825) - French philosopher, sociologist, famous social reformer, founder of the school of utopian socialism. The main works of Saint-Simon: “Letters from a Genevan inhabitant to his contemporaries” (1802), “Essay on the science of man” (1813-16), “Work on universal gravitation” (1813-22), “On the industrial system” (1821 ), "Catechism of Industrialists" (1823), "New Christianity" (1825).

Resolutely defending determinism, he extended it to the development of human society and paid special attention to substantiating the idea of historical regularity. History should become as positive a science as natural science. According to S.-S., each social system is a step forward in history. driving forces community development is the progress of scientific knowledge, morality and religion. Accordingly, history goes through three phases of development: theological (the period of domination of religion, covering the slave and feudal communities), metaphysical (the period of the collapse of the feudal and theological systems) and positive (the future social order).

Political systems do not arise by accident, but by virtue of law. progress of the human mind. Therefore, a stable order can only be an order that is consistent with the state of enlightenment, which determines the limits of power. The medieval theological and feudal system was created and put into practice by philosophers who previously destroyed the old systems, which had also been created by ancient, Greek and Roman philosophers. The necessary means for the creation of any new social system is provided by the progress of knowledge.

Transition to industrial system is conceived by Saint-Simon as a transfer of power from the hands of feudal and intermediate social groups to the hands of industrialists and scientists, which for him is tantamount to the transfer of state administration to the working people. Spiritual power is concentrated in the Academy, secular power in the Council of Industrialists.

Society of the future, according to S.-S., is based on scientifically and planned large-scale industry, but with the preservation of private property and classes. The dominant role belongs to scientists and industrialists (workers and manufacturers, merchants, bankers). Everyone must be guaranteed the right to work: everyone works according to his ability. In the future about-ve the management of people will be replaced by the disposal of things and the management of production. Industrialist class received its complete organization only in the XVIII century, with the formation of a new type of industry, the private interests of which were identical with the general interests of all industry. This kind of industry is banking. Farmers, manufacturers and merchants before the emergence of banks were separate corporations. The bank combined them into unified system credit, thereby giving to the class of industrialists, taken as a whole, such monetary power as neither all the other classes together nor even the state possess. The royal power has always been and is an ally of industrialists. Among the industrialists, Saint-Simon includes all workers in industry and agriculture, both as physical workers and as entrepreneurs. The industrialists are essentially joined by intellectual groups: scientists and artists.

Finding out the reasons for the decline in the importance of the old military nobility and the growth of the authority of industrialists, Saint-Simon connects these phenomena with the movement property and with the transfer of leading functions in production into the hands of industrialists. He explains the transfer of property by purely economic reasons. He argues that the organization of property is the foundation of the social edifice, while the organization of government is only its form. There is no change in the social order without a corresponding change in the form of property.

The main task of the industrial system- the establishment of a clear and reasonably combined plan of work to be carried out by society, therefore he calls the future social order association.

Major omission revolution consists in the fact that it did not transfer power into the hands of industrialists and scientists, but put two intermediate layers at the head of the state: metaphysicians and lawyers (legists). These intermediate layers were formed in the process of disintegration of the old society and played a positive role in their time. The Legists softened feudal justice in the interests of industry and more than once defended them in the old parliaments against the forces of feudalism; the metaphysicians softened the old theology, retaining a number of religious propositions, but opening doors beyond them to free judgment.

By the time of the French Revolution, the role of the legalists and metaphysicians had already been played: with their help industrialists and scientists grew into a dominant force and were to become directly the ruling class of society. However, this did not happen, because the industrialists, accustomed to seeing in the intermediate layers of legalists and metaphysicians as defenders of the interests of social development, decided to transfer power to them. As a result, the revolution did not lead to the construction of an industrial and scientific system; it left the country in an unorganized state.

In the new industrial society, the difference between the two groups is striking. Some own property, others do not. Saint-Simon believes the need for a struggle between owners and non-owners. "Proletarians"- not the owners.

New philosophy (politics), in order to become a science, it must follow the method of the positive sciences and be guided by the practice of social life, that is, combine theory with the practical problems of the time. Saint-Simon - like his student O. Comte later - will say that the task of any science is to "see in order to foresee ...".

The purpose of the new science is to give humanity the opportunity, based on knowledge of the past, to foresee what will happen in the future, it must, having created a theory, link many facts into a single whole, establishing their order and sequence, while using the principle of determinism and the idea of regularity. Social science or the science of man must be based on observations and facts, like physics, chemistry and astronomy. The philosophy of Saint-Simon is a kind of generalization of social life, and in accordance with this, it is not a system of passive contemplation, but a kind of code of practical guidance.

The main function of power in the old society there was the maintenance of order among this subordinate majority. The industrial system least of all requires the management of people. It follows that the power that governs will (in the industrial system) be limited. The maintenance of order becomes almost entirely the common duty of all citizens. The place of the system of managing people, the system of domination will take administration system. Administrative power will replace government power. And the main task of this administrative power, the bearers of which will be scientists, artists and industrialists, there will be an organization of work on the cultivation of the globe in the interests of mankind. The future society appears to Saint-Simon in the form of a huge, complex workshop. There is a need for education industrialist parties. Its activities should be based on public opinion.

The activity of scientists and artists (intelligentsia) is important in the field of preparing a new social philosophy and propagating its ideas. They must work out the basic principles of public education; in their hands, politics must be a supplement to the science of man. Artists will inspire society by painting before it a beautiful picture of new successes.

The utopian nature of the views of S.-S. especially clearly manifested itself in a misunderstanding of the historical role of the proletariat as the creator of a new society and the revolution as a means of transforming the old society, in the naive hope that the propaganda of "positive" (positive) philosophy can achieve a reasonable organization of people's lives. After the death of S.-S. his teaching was promoted by B. P. Anfantin (1796-1864) and S.-A. Bazaar (1791 -1832).

The dual position of Saint-Simon, the inconsistency of his reasoning laid the foundation for the formation in the future of two clearly defined areas of social transformational orientation: liberal-reformist and radical-revolutionary. The first is associated with the name of Comte and his followers, the second with the name of Marx. The difference between these positions is seen in the vision of the prospects for social development and in the choice of means of social transformation.

The main merits of Saint-Simon :

Substantiation of the need for a new science of society based on the principles of positive sciences;

Idea of progress;

Description of the history of the formation of classes;

The political system is connected with the organization of property and production, and the result of this is the class structure of society;

Characteristics of industrial society, the role of labor in social development.

Henri Saint-Simon(Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, fr. Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon , 10/17/1760, Paris - 05/19/1825, Paris) - French philosopher, sociologist, famous social reformer, founder of the school of utopian socialism. The main works of Saint-Simon: "Letters from a Genevan to his contemporaries" (1802), "Catechism of the Industrialists" (1823), "New Christianity" (1825).

Biography

Representative of a noble noble family, a relative of the Duke of Saint-Simon. d "Alamber took part in his upbringing.

Thirteen years old, he had the courage to tell his deeply religious father Balthazar Henri de Rouvroy de Saint-Simon Marquis Sandricourt (1721-1783) that he did not want to fast and take communion, for which he locked him in Saint-Lazare prison. Very early on, the idea of fame as the most worthy motive for human actions entered his worldview.

Henri Saint-Simon joins the detachment sent by the French government to help the North American colonies who have rebelled against England; participates in the struggle for five years and, finally, is captured by the British. Released at the end of the war, he travels to Mexico and proposes to the Spanish government a project to connect the Atlantic and Great Oceans through a canal. Coldly received, he returned to his homeland, where he received the post of commandant of the fortress in Metz and, under the guidance of G. Monge, studied mathematics.

Soon he retires, goes to Holland and tries to convince the government to form a French-Dutch colonial alliance against England, but, not having succeeded in this, he goes to Spain with a canal project that was supposed to connect Madrid with the sea. The revolution that broke out in France forced him to return to his homeland, but, in his own words, he did not want to actively interfere in the revolutionary movement, because he was deeply convinced of the fragility of the old order.

In 1790, he briefly served as mayor in the district where his estate was located. In the same year, he spoke in favor of the abolition of noble titles and privileges (in the era of the Restoration, however, he continued to bear the title of count). At the same time, Saint-Simon was engaged in buying up national property and in this way acquired a rather significant amount. He subsequently explained his speculations by the desire to "promote the progress of enlightenment and improve the lot of mankind" by "founding a scientific school of improvement and organizing a large industrial establishment." During the terror, Saint-Simon was imprisoned, from where he did not leave until after 9 Thermidor.

In 1797, Saint-Simon intended "to pave a new physical and mathematical path for human understanding, forcing science to take a general step forward and leaving the initiative in this matter to the French school." To this end, at the age of forty, he takes up the study of the natural sciences, wanting to "state their current state and find out the historical sequence in which scientific discoveries took place"; gets acquainted with the professors of the polytechnic, then of the medical school, in order to determine "the effect produced by scientific studies on those who indulge in them"; he tries to turn his house into a center of scientific and artistic life, for which he marries (in 1801) the daughter of a deceased friend.

IN next year he divorced her and sought the hand of Madame de Stael, who seemed to him the only woman capable of contributing to his scientific plan. He traveled for this to the estate of Madame de Stael on the shores of Lake Geneva, but was not successful. Having made a trip to Germany and England (1802) and having spent his last funds on this, Saint-Simon returned to France and was forced to take a position as a scribe in a pawnshop, which gave him 1,000 francs a year for a daily nine-hour work, while one of his acquaintances, Diar, did not offer him to live on his means in order to be able to continue his scientific studies.

In 1810, Diar died, and Saint-Simon again became terribly poor, asking for help from rich people. Not always having the means to print his works, he personally copied them in several dozen copies and sent them to various scientists or dignitaries ( "Mémoire sur la science de l'homme", "Mémoire sur la gravitation universelle"). Nevertheless, he publishes many pamphlets, appears with articles in the press.

In 1820, after the assassination of Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry, Saint-Simon was brought to trial as a moral accomplice in a crime. The jury acquitted him, and he soon wrote a pamphlet "On the Bourbons and the Stuarts", where, drawing a parallel between these two dynasties, he predicted the fate of the Stuarts to the Bourbons.

Gradually, Saint-Simon more and more begins to come to the conclusion that the rights of industrialists impose on them certain duties towards the proletariat. His rich patrons did not like the new direction, and, having lost their support, he soon found himself again in extreme need, which forced him to encroach on his life (). The wound was non-fatal: Saint-Simon lost only one eye. A subscription was opened in his favor, and the sums collected allowed him to continue his writing activity.

Thoughts and ideas

Early views of Saint-Simon

During his stay in Geneva, Saint-Simon published his first work: "Letters from a Resident of Geneva to His Contemporaries"(1802). He demands here the unrestricted domination of art and science, which are called upon to organize society. The militant type of humanity must disappear and be replaced by the scientific: "Away, Alexandra, give way to the disciples of Archimedes."

In general, with all his teaching about society, Saint-Simon connected his name with the first stage of the evolution of positivism, and the views expressed by him in last years regarding the working class, made him the ancestor of socialism.

Saint-Simon and communist ideology

Publication of works in Russian translation

Saint-Simon A. Collected Works. M ., L., 1923.
Saint-Simon A. Selected works. T. 1-2 M., L., 1948.

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Notes

Literature

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An excerpt characterizing Saint-Simon, Henri

Pierre sat opposite Dolokhov and Nikolai Rostov. He ate a lot and greedily and drank a lot, as always. But those who knew him briefly saw that some great change had taken place in him that day. He was silent all the time of dinner, and, screwing up his eyes and wincing, looked around him, or stopping his eyes, with an air of complete absent-mindedness, rubbed the bridge of his nose with his finger. His face was sad and gloomy. He did not seem to see or hear anything going on around him, and he thought of one thing, heavy and unresolved.
This unresolved question that tormented him was the princess’s hints in Moscow about Dolokhov’s closeness to his wife and this morning the anonymous letter he received, in which it was said with that vile jocularity that is characteristic of all anonymous letters that he sees badly through his glasses, and that his wife's connection with Dolokhov is a secret only for him alone. Pierre resolutely did not believe either the hints of the princess or the letter, but he was now afraid to look at Dolokhov, who was sitting in front of him. Every time his gaze accidentally met Dolokhov's beautiful, insolent eyes, Pierre felt something terrible, ugly rising in his soul, and he rather turned away. Involuntarily recalling all the past of his wife and her relationship with Dolokhov, Pierre saw clearly that what was said in the letter could be true, could at least seem true, if it did not concern his wife. Pierre involuntarily recalled how Dolokhov, to whom everything was returned after the campaign, returned to St. Petersburg and came to him. Taking advantage of his revelry friendship with Pierre, Dolokhov came directly to his house, and Pierre placed him and lent him money. Pierre recalled how Helen, smiling, expressed her displeasure that Dolokhov was living in their house, and how Dolokhov cynically praised him for the beauty of his wife, and how from that time until his arrival in Moscow he was not separated from them for a minute.
“Yes, he is very handsome,” thought Pierre, I know him. It would be a special charm for him to dishonor my name and laugh at me, precisely because I worked for him and despised him, helped him. I know, I understand what salt in his eyes this must give to his deceit, if it were true. Yes, if it were true; but I do not believe, have no right, and cannot believe.” He recalled the expression that Dolokhov's face assumed when moments of cruelty were found on him, like those in which he connected the quarterly with a bear and let him into the water, or when he challenged a man to a duel for no reason, or killed the coachman's horse with a pistol . This expression was often on Dolokhov's face when he looked at him. “Yes, he is a bully,” thought Pierre, it doesn’t mean anything to him to kill a person, it should seem to him that everyone is afraid of him, he should be pleased with this. He must think that I am afraid of him. And really I am afraid of him, ”thought Pierre, and again with these thoughts he felt something terrible and ugly rising in his soul. Dolokhov, Denisov and Rostov were now sitting opposite Pierre and seemed very cheerful. Rostov was talking merrily with his two friends, one of whom was a dashing hussar, the other a well-known brat and rake, and occasionally looked mockingly at Pierre, who at this dinner struck with his concentrated, absent-minded, massive figure. Rostov looked unkindly at Pierre, firstly, because Pierre in his hussar eyes was a civilian rich man, the husband of a beauty, in general a woman; secondly, because Pierre, in the concentration and distraction of his mood, did not recognize Rostov and did not answer his bow. When they began to drink the health of the sovereign, Pierre, thinking, did not get up and did not take a glass.
- What are you? - Rostov shouted to him, looking at him with enthusiastic angry eyes. – Don't you hear; health of the sovereign emperor! - Pierre, sighing, meekly got up, drank his glass and, waiting for everyone to sit down, turned to Rostov with his kind smile.
“I didn’t recognize you,” he said. - But Rostov was not up to it, he shouted hurray!
“Why don’t you renew your acquaintance,” Dolokhov said to Rostov.
“God bless him, you fool,” said Rostov.
“We must cherish the husbands of pretty women,” said Denisov. Pierre did not hear what they were saying, but he knew what they were saying about him. He blushed and turned away.
- Well, now for health beautiful women, - said Dolokhov, and with a serious expression, but with a smiling mouth in the corners, he turned to Pierre with a glass.
“To the health of beautiful women, Petrusha, and their lovers,” he said.
Pierre, lowering his eyes, drank from his glass, not looking at Dolokhov and not answering him. The footman, who was distributing Kutuzov's cantata, put the sheet to Pierre as a more honored guest. He wanted to take it, but Dolokhov leaned over, snatched the sheet from his hand and began to read. Pierre glanced at Dolokhov, his pupils dropped: something terrible and ugly, which had tormented him all the time of dinner, rose and took possession of him. He bent over the table with his fat body: - Don't you dare take it! he shouted.
Hearing this cry and seeing to whom it referred, Nesvitsky and a neighbor on the right side, frightened and hastily turned to Bezukhov.
- Complete, complete, what are you? whispered frightened voices. Dolokhov looked at Pierre with bright, cheerful, cruel eyes, with the same smile, as if he were saying: “But I love this.” “I won’t,” he said clearly.
Pale, with a trembling lip, Pierre tore the leaf. - You ... you ... scoundrel! .. I challenge you, - he said, and moving his chair, he got up from the table. At the very second that Pierre did this and uttered these words, he felt that the question of the guilt of his wife, which had tormented him these last days, was finally and undoubtedly decided in the affirmative. He hated her and was forever broken from her. Despite Denisov's requests that Rostov not interfere in this matter, Rostov agreed to be Dolokhov's second, and after the table he spoke with Nesvitsky, Bezukhov's second, about the terms of the duel. Pierre went home, and Rostov, Dolokhov and Denisov sat in the club until late in the evening, listening to gypsies and song books.
- So see you tomorrow, in Sokolniki, - said Dolokhov, saying goodbye to Rostov on the porch of the club.
- Are you calm? Rostov asked...
Dolokhov stopped. “You see, I will tell you the whole secret of the duel in a few words. If you go to a duel and write wills and tender letters to your parents, if you think that you might be killed, you are a fool and probably lost; and you go with the firm intention of killing him as quickly and as quickly as possible, then everything is in order. As our Kostroma bear cub used to say to me: then, he says, how not to be afraid of a bear? Yes, as soon as you see him, and the fear has passed, as if it had not gone away! Well, so am I. A demain, mon cher! [See you tomorrow, my dear!]
The next day, at 8 o'clock in the morning, Pierre and Nesvitsky arrived at the Sokolnitsky forest and found Dolokhov, Denisov and Rostov there. Pierre looked like a man preoccupied with some considerations that had nothing to do with the upcoming business. His haggard face was yellow. He apparently didn't sleep that night. He absentmindedly looked around him and grimaced, as if from a bright sun. Two considerations exclusively occupied him: the guilt of his wife, in which after a sleepless night there was no longer the slightest doubt, and the innocence of Dolokhov, who had no reason to protect the honor of a stranger to him. “Perhaps I would have done the same in his place,” thought Pierre. Even I probably would have done the same; why this duel, this murder? Either I will kill him, or he will hit me in the head, in the elbow, in the knee. Get out of here, run away, bury yourself somewhere, ”it occurred to him. But precisely in those moments when such thoughts came to him. with a particularly calm and absent-minded air that inspired respect in those who looked at him, he asked: “Is it soon, and is it ready?”
When everything was ready, the sabers were stuck in the snow, meaning a barrier to which it was necessary to converge, and the pistols were loaded, Nesvitsky approached Pierre.
“I would not have fulfilled my duty, Count,” he said in a timid voice, “and would not have justified the trust and honor that you have done me by choosing me as your second, if I had not said at this important moment, a very important moment, you the whole truth. I believe that this case does not have enough reasons, and that it is not worth shedding blood for it ... You were wrong, not quite right, you got excited ...
“Oh yes, terribly stupid ...” said Pierre.
“So let me convey your regret, and I am sure that our opponents will agree to accept your apology,” said Nesvitsky (as well as other participants in the case and like everyone else in such cases, still not believing that it would come to a real duel) . “You know, Count, it is much nobler to admit one’s mistake than to bring the matter to the point of irreparable. There was no resentment on either side. Let me talk...
- No, what is there to talk about! - said Pierre, - all the same ... Is that ready? he added. “Just tell me how to go where, and where to shoot?” he said, smiling unnaturally meekly. - He took a pistol in his hands, began to ask about the method of descent, since he still did not hold a pistol in his hands, which he did not want to admit. “Oh yes, that’s right, I know, I just forgot,” he said.
“No apologies, nothing decisive,” Dolokhov said to Denisov, who, for his part, also made an attempt at reconciliation, and also approached the appointed place.
The place for the duel was chosen 80 paces from the road on which the sledges remained, in a small clearing of a pine forest covered with melted from standing last days thaw snow. The opponents stood 40 paces apart, at the edges of the clearing. The seconds, measuring their steps, made imprints in the wet, deep snow, traces from the place where they stood to the sabers of Nesvitsky and Denisov, which meant a barrier and were stuck in 10 steps from each other. The thaw and fog continued; nothing was visible for 40 steps. For about three minutes everything was already ready, and yet they hesitated to start, everyone was silent.

- Well, start! Dolokhov said.
“Well,” said Pierre, still smiling. - It was getting scary. It was obvious that the deed, which had begun so easily, could no longer be prevented by anything, that it proceeded by itself, already independently of the will of the people, and had to be accomplished. Denisov was the first to come forward to the barrier and proclaimed:
- Since the "opponents" refused to "imitate", wouldn't you like to start: take pistols and, according to the word t "and begin to converge.
- G ... "az! Two! T" and! ... - Denisov shouted angrily and stepped aside. Both walked along the trodden paths closer and closer, recognizing each other in the fog. The opponents had the right, converging to the barrier, to shoot whenever they wanted. Dolokhov walked slowly, without raising his pistol, peering with his light, shining, blue eyes into the face of his opponent. His mouth, as always, had a semblance of a smile on it.
- So when I want - I can shoot! - said Pierre, at the word three, he went forward with quick steps, straying from the beaten path and walking on solid snow. Pierre held the pistol outstretched forward right hand, apparently afraid of how not to kill himself from this pistol. He diligently put his left hand back, because he wanted to support his right hand with it, but he knew that this was impossible. After walking six paces and straying off the path into the snow, Pierre looked around at his feet, again quickly looked at Dolokhov, and pulling his finger, as he had been taught, fired. Not expecting such a strong sound, Pierre flinched at his shot, then smiled at his own impression and stopped. The smoke, especially thick from the fog, prevented him from seeing at first; but the other shot he was waiting for did not come. Only Dolokhov's hurried steps were heard, and his figure appeared from behind the smoke. With one hand he held on to his left side, with the other he clutched the lowered pistol. His face was pale. Rostov ran up and said something to him.
- No ... e ... t, - Dolokhov said through his teeth, - no, it's not over, - and taking a few more falling, hobbled steps to the very saber, he fell on the snow beside it. Left hand he was covered in blood, he wiped it on his coat and leaned on it. His face was pale, frowning and trembling.
“It’s a pity…” Dolokhov began, but he couldn’t pronounce it right away… “Perhaps,” he finished with an effort. Pierre, barely holding back his sobs, ran to Dolokhov, and was about to cross the space separating the barriers, when Dolokhov shouted: - to the barrier! - and Pierre, realizing what was happening, stopped at his saber. Only 10 steps separated them. Dolokhov lowered his head to the snow, greedily bit the snow, raised his head again, corrected himself, drew up his legs and sat down, looking for a firm center of gravity. He swallowed cold snow and sucked it; his lips trembled, but still smiling; his eyes shone with the effort and malice of the last gathered strength. He raised his pistol and took aim.
“Sideways, cover yourself with a pistol,” Nesvitsky said.
- 3ak "ope!" - unable to stand it, even Denisov shouted to his opponent.
Pierre, with a meek smile of regret and repentance, helplessly spreading his legs and arms, stood straight in front of Dolokhov with his broad chest and looked sadly at him. Denisov, Rostov and Nesvitsky closed their eyes. At the same time they heard a shot and an angry cry from Dolokhov.
- Past! Dolokhov shouted and lay down helplessly on the snow, face down. Pierre clutched his head and, turning back, went into the forest, walking entirely in the snow and aloud saying incomprehensible words:
“Stupid… stupid!” Death... lie... - he repeated wincing. Nesvitsky stopped him and took him home.
Rostov and Denisov carried the wounded Dolokhov.
Dolokhov, silently, with closed eyes, lay in the sleigh and did not answer the questions that were put to him; but, having entered Moscow, he suddenly came to himself and, raising his head with difficulty, took Rostov, who was sitting beside him, by the hand. Rostov was struck by the completely changed and unexpectedly enthusiastically tender expression of Dolokhov's face.
- Well? How do you feel? Rostov asked.
- Bad! but that's not the point. My friend, - said Dolokhov in a broken voice, - where are we? We are in Moscow, I know. I'm fine, but I killed her, killed her... She can't take it. She won't bear...
- Who? Rostov asked.
- My mother. My mother, my angel, my adored angel, mother, - and Dolokhov began to cry, squeezing Rostov's hand. When he calmed down somewhat, he explained to Rostov that he was living with his mother, that if his mother saw him dying, she would not be able to bear it. He begged Rostov to go to her and prepare her.
Rostov went ahead to carry out the assignment, and to his great surprise he learned that Dolokhov, this brawler, Dolokhov lived in Moscow with an old mother and a hunchbacked sister, and was the most tender son and brother.

pierre in Lately I rarely saw my wife face to face. Both in St. Petersburg and in Moscow, their house was constantly full of guests. IN next night after the duel, he, as he often did, did not go to the bedroom, but remained in his huge, father's study, in the very one in which Count Bezuhy died.
He lay down on the sofa and wanted to fall asleep in order to forget everything that had happened to him, but he could not do it. Such a storm of feelings, thoughts, memories suddenly arose in his soul that he not only could not sleep, but could not sit still and had to jump up from the sofa and walk around the room with quick steps. Then she seemed to him at the first time after her marriage, with bare shoulders and a tired, passionate look, and immediately next to her he saw Dolokhov’s beautiful, insolent and firmly mocking face, as it was at dinner, and the same face of Dolokhov, pale, trembling and suffering as it was when he turned and fell into the snow.
“What happened? he asked himself. “I killed my lover, yes, I killed my wife's lover. Yes, it was. From what? How did I get there? “Because you married her,” answered the inner voice.
“But what is my fault? he asked. “In the fact that you married without loving her, in the fact that you deceived both yourself and her,” and he vividly imagined that minute after dinner at Prince Vasily’s, when he said these words that did not come out of him: “Je vous aime.” [I love you.] Everything from this! I felt then, he thought, I felt then that it was not that I had no right to it. And so it happened." He remembered the honeymoon, and blushed at the memory. Especially vivid, insulting and shameful for him was the memory of how one day, shortly after his marriage, at 12 o'clock in the afternoon, in a silk dressing gown, he came from the bedroom to the office, and in the office found the chief manager, who bowed respectfully, looked at Pierre's face, on his dressing gown and smiled slightly, as if expressing with this smile respectful sympathy for the happiness of his principal.
“And how many times have I been proud of her, proud of her majestic beauty, her worldly tact,” he thought; he was proud of his home, in which she received all of Petersburg, was proud of her inaccessibility and beauty. So what am I proud of? At the time I thought I didn't understand her. How often, pondering her character, I said to myself that it was my fault that I did not understand her, that I did not understand this eternal calmness, contentment and absence of any predilections and desires, and the whole clue was in that terrible word that she was a depraved woman: yourself this terrible word, and everything became clear!
“Anatole went to her to borrow money from her and kissed her bare shoulders. She didn't give him money, but she let him kiss her. Her father jokingly aroused her jealousy; she said with a calm smile that she was not so stupid as to be jealous: let her do what she wants, she said about me. I asked her once if she felt any signs of pregnancy. She laughed contemptuously and said that she was not a fool to want to have children, and that she would not have children from me.
Then he remembered the coarseness, the clarity of her thoughts and the vulgarity of her expressions, despite her upbringing in the highest aristocratic circle. "I'm not some kind of fool ... go and try it yourself ... allez vous promener," [get out,] she said. Often, looking at her success in the eyes of old and young men and women, Pierre could not understand why he did not love her. Yes, I never loved her, Pierre said to himself; I knew she was a depraved woman, he repeated to himself, but he did not dare to admit it.
And now Dolokhov, here he is sitting in the snow and forcibly smiling, and dying, perhaps with some kind of feigned youth answering my repentance!
Pierre was one of those people who, despite their external, so-called weakness of character, do not look for an attorney for their grief. He processed his grief alone in himself.
“She is in everything, she alone is to blame for everything,” he said to himself; – but what of it? Why did I associate myself with her, why did I say to her this: “Je vous aime”, [I love you?] which was a lie and even worse than a lie, he said to himself. I am to blame and must bear ... What? The shame of the name, the misfortune of life? Eh, it's all nonsense, he thought, and the disgrace of the name, and honor, everything is conditional, everything is independent of me.
“Louis XVI was executed because they said that he was dishonorable and a criminal (it occurred to Pierre), and they were right from their point of view, just as those who died for him were right martyrdom and counted him among the saints. Then Robespierre was executed for being a despot. Who is right, who is wrong? Nobody. But live and live: tomorrow you will die, how could I have died an hour ago. And is it worth it to suffer when one second remains to live compared to eternity? But at the moment when he considered himself reassured by this kind of reasoning, she suddenly imagined her, and at those moments when he most of all showed her his insincere love, and he felt a rush of blood to his heart, and had to get up again, move, and break and tear things that fall under his hands. “Why did I say to her:“ Je vous aime? ”he kept repeating to himself. And after repeating this question for the 10th time, it occurred to him Molierovo: mais que diable allait il faire dans cette galere? [but why the devil carried him to this galley?] and he laughed at himself.
At night, he called the valet and ordered to pack in order to go to Petersburg. He couldn't stay under the same roof with her. He couldn't imagine how he would talk to her now. He decided that tomorrow he would leave and leave her a letter in which he would announce to her his intention to be separated from her forever.
In the morning, when the valet, bringing in coffee, entered the study, Pierre lay on the ottoman and slept with an open book in his hand.
He woke up and looked around frightened for a long time, unable to understand where he was.
“The countess ordered me to ask if your excellency is at home?” asked the valet.
But before Pierre had time to decide on the answer that he would make, the countess herself, in a white, satin robe, embroidered with silver, and in simple hair (two huge braids en diademe [in the form of a diadem] went around her lovely head twice) entered the room calm and majestic; only on her marble, somewhat convex forehead was a wrinkle of anger. She, with her all-enduring calmness, did not speak in front of the valet. She knew about the duel and came to talk about it. She waited until the valet filled the coffee and left. Pierre looked at her timidly through his glasses, and just as a hare, surrounded by dogs, pressing its ears, continues to lie in sight of its enemies, so he tried to continue reading: but he felt that it was pointless and impossible, and again looked timidly at her. She did not sit down, and with a contemptuous smile looked at him, waiting for the valet to come out.
– What is that? What have you done, I ask you,” she said sternly.
- I? what am I? Pierre said.
- Here is a brave man found! Well, tell me, what kind of duel is this? What did you want to prove with this! What? I'm asking you. Pierre turned heavily on the sofa, opened his mouth, but could not answer.
“If you do not answer, then I will tell you ...” Helen continued. “You believe everything that they tell you, you were told ...” Helen laughed, “that Dolokhov is my lover,” she said in French, with her rough accuracy of speech, pronouncing the word “lover” like any other word, “and you believed ! But what did you prove? What did you prove with this duel! That you are a fool, que vous etes un sot, [that you are a fool] everyone knew that! What will it lead to? To make me the laughingstock of all Moscow; so that everyone would say that you, in a drunken state, not remembering yourself, challenged to a duel a person whom you are jealous of without reason, - Helen raised her voice more and more and became animated, - who is better than you in every respect ...
“Hm ... hm ...” Pierre mumbled, grimacing, not looking at her and not moving a single member.
- And why could you believe that he was my lover? ... Why? Because I love his company? If you were smarter and nicer, then I would prefer yours.
“Don’t talk to me ... I beg you,” Pierre whispered hoarsely.
"Why shouldn't I speak!" I can speak and boldly say that it is a rare wife who, with a husband like you, would not take lovers (des amants), but I did not, she said. Pierre wanted to say something, looked at her with strange eyes, which she did not understand the expression, and lay down again. He suffered physically at that moment: his chest was tight, and he could not breathe. He knew that he needed to do something to end this suffering, but what he wanted to do was too scary.
"We'd better part ways," he said brokenly.
“To part, if you please, only if you give me a fortune,” said Helen ... To part, that’s what scared me!
Pierre jumped up from the sofa and staggered towards her.
- I'll kill you! he shouted, and seizing a marble board from the table, with a force unknown to him, took a step towards it and swung at it.
Helen's face became terrifying: she yelped and jumped away from him. The breed of his father affected him. Pierre felt the fascination and charm of rage. He threw the plank, smashed it, and approaching Helen with open arms, shouted: “Out!!” in such a terrible voice that the whole house was terrified to hear this cry. God knows what Pierre would have done at that moment if
Helen didn't run out of the room.

A week later, Pierre gave his wife a power of attorney to manage all the Great Russian estates, which accounted for more than half of his fortune, and left alone for St. Petersburg.

Two months passed after receiving news in the Bald Mountains about the battle of Austerlitz and the death of Prince Andrei, and despite all the letters through the embassy and all the searches, his body was not found, and he was not among the prisoners. The worst thing for his relatives was that there was still the hope that he had been raised by the inhabitants on the battlefield, and perhaps he was lying convalescing or dying somewhere alone, among strangers, and unable to give news of himself. In the newspapers, from which the old prince first learned about the defeat of Austerlitz, it was written, as always, very briefly and vaguely, that the Russians, after brilliant battles, had to retreat and made a retreat in perfect order. The old prince understood from this official news that ours had been defeated. A week after the newspaper that brought the news of the Battle of Austerlitz, a letter arrived from Kutuzov, who informed the prince about the fate that befell his son.

Henri Saint-Simon(Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Count de Saint-Simon, fr. Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, 10/17/1760, Paris - 05/19/1825, Paris) - French philosopher, sociologist, famous social reformer, founder of the utopian school socialism. The main works of Saint-Simon: "Letters from a Genevan to his contemporaries" (1802), "Catechism of the Industrialists" (1823), "New Christianity" (1825).

Biography

Representative of a noble noble family, a relative of the Duke of Saint-Simon. d "Alamber took part in his upbringing.

The next year he divorced her and sought the hand of Madame de Stael, who seemed to him the only woman capable of furthering his scientific plan. He went for this to the estate of Madame de Stael on the shores of Lake Geneva, but was not successful. Having made a trip to Germany and England (1802) and having spent his last funds on this, Saint-Simon returned to France and was forced to take a position as a scribe in a pawnshop, which gave him 1,000 francs a year for a daily nine-hour work, while one of his acquaintances, Diar, did not offer him to live on his means in order to be able to continue his scientific studies.

In 1810, Diar died, and Saint-Simon again became terribly poor, asking for help from rich people. Not always having the means to print his works, he personally copied them in several dozen copies and sent them to various scientists or dignitaries (“Mmoire sur la science de l’homme”, “Mmoire sur la gravitation universelle”). Nevertheless, he publishes many pamphlets, appears with articles in the press.

(Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, fr. Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, 1760-1825) is a well-known social reformer, founder of the school of utopian socialism.

Biography

He came from a family that considered Charlemagne to be its ancestor. In his upbringing, as he himself claimed, d'Alembert took part (these data are not confirmed by independent sources).

At the age of thirteen, he had the courage to tell his deeply religious father Balthasar Henri de rouvroy de Saint-Simon Marquis Sandricourt (1721-1783) that he did not want to fast and take communion, for which he locked him in Saint-Lazare prison. Very early on, the idea of fame as the most worthy motive for human actions entered his worldview. While still a teenager, he ordered the lackey to wake himself up only with the following words: “Get up, count, you have to do great things.”

Strange plans constantly swarmed in his head. He joins the detachment sent by the French government to help the North American colonies that have revolted against England; participates in the struggle for five years and, finally, is captured by the British. Released at the end of the war, he travels to Mexico and proposes to the Spanish government a project to connect the Atlantic and Great Oceans through a canal. Coldly received, he returned to his homeland, where he received the post of commandant of the fortress in Metz and, under the guidance of Monge, studied mathematical sciences.

Soon he retires, goes to Holland and tries to convince the government to form a French-Dutch colonial alliance against England, but, having failed in this, he goes to Spain with a canal project that was supposed to connect Madrid with the sea. The revolution that broke out in France forced him to return to his homeland, but, in his own words, he did not want to actively interfere in the revolutionary movement, because he was deeply convinced of the fragility of the old order.

In 1790, he briefly served as mayor in the district where his estate was located. In the same year, he spoke in favor of the abolition of noble titles and privileges (in the era of the Restoration, however, he continued to bear the title of count). At the same time, S. was engaged in buying up national property and acquired in this way a fairly significant amount. He subsequently explained his speculations by the desire to "promote the progress of enlightenment and improve the lot of mankind" by "founding a scientific school of improvement and organizing a large industrial establishment." During the terror, S.-Simon was imprisoned, from where he left only after 9 Thermidor.

Thoughts and ideas

In 1797, he intended "to pave a new physical and mathematical path for human understanding, forcing science to take a general step forward and leaving the initiative in this matter to the French school." To this end, at the age of forty, he takes up the study of the natural sciences, wanting to "state their current state and find out the historical sequence in which scientific discoveries took place"; gets acquainted with the professors of the polytechnic, then of the medical school, in order to determine "the effect produced by scientific studies on those who indulge in them"; he tries to turn his house into a center of scientific and artistic life, for which he marries (in 1801) the daughter of a deceased friend.

The next year he divorced her and sought the hand of Mme de Stael, who seemed to him the only woman capable of furthering his scientific plan. For this he went to the estate of Mme de Stael on the shores of Lake Geneva, but was not successful. During his stay in Geneva, S. published his first work: "Letters from a Geneva resident to his contemporaries" (1802). He demands here the unrestricted domination of art and science, which are called upon to organize society. The militant type of humanity must disappear and be replaced by the scientific: "Away, Alexandra, give way to the disciples of Archimedes."

Labor - categorical imperative new society. Everyone will have to exert their strength in a way that is beneficial to humanity: the poor will feed the rich, who will work with his head, and if he is incapable of this, then he must work with his hands. Spiritual power in the new society should belong to scientists, secular power to property owners, and the right to choose the bearers of both powers to all the people. In essence, the content secular power it has not been clarified: she has nothing left to do, since the entire organization of society, the entire direction of work is in the hands of spiritual power.

In general, the ideas expressed by S. are vague and sometimes even contradictory. Influenced by similar attempts made at the end of the 18th century, he proposes new religion revealed to him, according to him, in a vision by God himself. hallmark this religion is "Newtonism": Newton is entrusted by God with "guiding the light and managing the inhabitants of all planets"; the place of the temples will be taken by the “Newton mausoleums”, etc. Having made a trip to Germany and England (1802) and having spent his last funds on this, S. returned to France and was forced to take a position as a scribe in a pawnshop, which gave him 1000 francs. per year for ten hours a day, until one of his acquaintances, Dear, offered him to live on his means in order to be able to continue his scientific studies.

In 1810, Diar died, and S. again became terribly poor, asking for help from rich people. Not always having the means to print his works, he personally copied them in several dozen copies and sent them to various scientists or dignitaries (“Mémoire sur la science de l’homme”, “Mémoire sur la gravitation universelle”).

In 1808 he published Introduction to Scientific Works of the 19th Century. Science, in his opinion, until that time was engaged only in experiments, investigated only facts; it was very fruitful, but it's time to take a common point of view. All particular sciences are only elements of a certain general science, which is precisely positive philosophy. Both in its whole and in its parts, science must have only a "relative and positive character"; human knowledge has already reached such a state in which it is necessary to generalize it and build a complete building out of it.

This idea is supplemented by another - about the systematic organization of further scientific research. S. also speaks of the "usefulness of the new scientific system," of the classification of sciences and its connection with the history of the development of mankind in his following pamphlets: Lettres au bureau des Longitudes and Nouvelle Encyclop é die. In his "Note on the Science of Man" he demands the creation of a special positive "science of man" that would study humanity from a purely scientific point vision of how the exact sciences study the inorganic world. Mankind develops in the same natural way as everything organic, and this development leads to the highest perfection.

It is impossible to consider the individual from any one side - either from the political or from the economic; it is necessary to take the fullness of phenomena, all their diversity and trace their interdependence and interaction (an idea implemented by one of S.'s students, O. Comte, in the creation of sociology). Finally, in the Note on Universal Gravity, he seeks to find an explanation for all phenomena in the law of universal gravitation. Events 1814 - 15 years. distracted S. from purely scientific issues and directed his thoughts to political issues, and then social, resulting in several political pamphlets.

In The Reorganization of European Society, written in collaboration with Og. Thierry, he insists on the need for an alliance between France and England, which would allow these two countries to introduce constitutional orders into all other European states; then all of them together would form a pan-European parliament, which would be the supreme resolver of disagreements between individual states, would create a code of morals and would set as its main task the organization of public works, the construction of canals, the organization of resettlement of the surplus population to other countries.

The same idea is expressed by S. and in the subsequent "Opinions sur les mesures à prendre contre la coalition de 1815". S. had the opportunity to publish these pamphlets because his family agreed to pay him a pension for refusing to inherit. In the ensuing struggle between industrial and clerical-feudal interests, between "people of industry with people of parchment", he took the side of the first, with whose assistance he began to publish the collection "L'industrie" (1817 - 18) with the epigraph: "everything through industry everything for her." Understanding “industrialism” as a new industrial direction, in contrast to the former aristocracy, and not yet noticing among the “industrials” themselves the opposition of the interests of capital and labor, he proves that only labor gives the right to exist and that modern society should consist of those who work mentally and physically.

The same defense of "industrialists against courtesans and nobles, that is, bees against drones" S.-S. leads to Politique (1819), L'Organisateur (1819-20), Système industriel (1821-22), Catéchisme des industriels (1822-23). The place of the military-theocratic state, which has outlived itself, must be occupied by an industrial-scientific state; military service must give way to the general duty of labor; like the 18th century was predominantly critical, destroying the barriers to the formation of a new social order, so the XIX century. must be creative, must create an industrial state based on the results of science.

The Organisateur contains the famous Parabola, in which he makes the assumption that France will suddenly lose three thousand of her first physicists, chemists, physiologists and other scientists, artists, as well as the most capable technicians, bankers, merchants, manufacturers, farmers, artisans, etc. What will be the consequences? Since these people "make up the flower of French society ... the nation will become a body without a soul ... And it will need at least a whole generation to compensate for its losses." But suppose the sudden death of three thousand people of a different kind - members of the royal house, dignitaries, state advisers, ministers, bishops, cardinals, chief masters of the ceremonies, chief masters of ceremonies, prefects and subprefects, etc. and, “in addition, ten thousand proprietors, the most rich, of those who live in a lordly way" - and what? The good-natured French will be very upset out of the goodness of their hearts, but "from this accident no political evil will happen to the state", since soon there will be thousands of people ready and able to take the places of the dead. Modern society, from the point of view of S.-S., there is “truly light inside out, since those who represent positive utility are placed in a subordinate position” in relation to people who are incapable, ignorant and immoral. - Since the Duke of Berry was killed shortly after, S.-S. was brought to trial as a moral accomplice in a crime.

The jury acquitted him, and he soon wrote a pamphlet "On the Bourbons and the Stuarts", where, drawing a parallel between these two dynasties, he predicted the fate of the Stuarts to the Bourbons. More and more, however, S. begins to come to the conclusion that the rights of industrialists also impose on them certain duties in relation to the proletariat. His rich patrons did not like the new direction, and, having lost their support, he soon found himself again in extreme need, which forced him to encroach on his life (1823). The wound was non-fatal. S. lost only one eye.

A subscription was opened in his favor, and the sums collected allowed him to continue his writing activity. Catéchisme politique des industriels (one of the editions of which was written by O. Comte) was followed by Opinions littéraires, philosophiques et industrielles (1825), where his new attitude towards the working class was finally determined. He points here to the fundamental contradiction between capital and labor, from the interaction of which the liberal bourgeoisie arose. The aim of the revolution of the last century, he says, was political freedom, while the aim of our age must be humanity and fraternity. The middle class deprived the landed proprietors of power, but itself took their place; his guiding star was naked selfishness. To fight it, to put brotherhood in its place, S. demands an alliance between the royal power and the workers, on the banner of which the attainment of the greatest possible economic equality would be inscribed.

"The industrial principle is based on the principle of complete equality." Political freedom is a necessary consequence of progressive development; but once it is achieved, it ceases to be the final goal. Individualism has overdeveloped the already strong egoism in man; now it is necessary to try to organize production on the principles of association, which will soon lead to the development of natural feelings of solidarity and mutual brotherly devotion. The slogan of individualism is the struggle of people against each other; the slogan of the principle of association is the struggle of people in alliance with each other against nature. the main task government people in an industrial state is to care about work. Closely approaching the principle of the right to work, S. foresaw that the proletariat would soon organize itself and demand the right to participate in power; the best policy, therefore, is to unite the holders of power with real workers against idle capital. S.'s swan song was New Christianity. Recognizing the divine origin of Christianity, he thinks, however, that God at revelation is applied to the degree of understanding of people, as a result of which even the disciples of Christ did not have access to divine truth in its entirety. That is why the main commandment of Christ, “love your neighbor as yourself,” can and should now be expressed differently: “every society should take care of the fastest possible improvement in the moral and physical condition of the poorest class; it must be organized in such a way as will most contribute to the achievement of this goal.

The new Christianity must be a transformation of the old: it has not yet come, it is ahead and will lead to universal happiness. "The golden age, which blind tradition has hitherto placed in the past, is actually ahead of us." The new Christians will also have a cult, there will be dogmas; “But the moral teaching will be the most important thing for them, and the cult and dogmas will be only a kind of appendage.” Pointing to the successes of mathematics and natural science, S. expressed regret that the most important science, "which forms the very society and serves as its foundation - moral science" - is neglected. In 1825, Mr.. S. died (in Paris) in the presence of his students.

Before his death, he said: “They think that every religious system must disappear, because the decrepitude of Catholicism has been proven. This is a deep delusion; religion cannot leave the world, it only changes its appearance... My whole life is summed up in one thought: to secure for people the free development of their abilities... The fate of the workers will be arranged; the future belongs to us."

From an early age, dreaming of great deeds and glory, convinced that “only those who escaped from the asylum of lunatics usually get to Valhalla of glory” and that “it is necessary to be inspired to accomplish great things”, really carried away by his plans and ideas to self-forgetfulness, sometimes to the prophetic ecstasy, S. often changed one idea to another and became a reformer in the field of science, then in the field of politics, social structure, and even morality and religion. "Inventor of ideas" and a master in the art of captivating people and directing them to scientific research, he had many students (Og. Comte and Og. Thierry - the most famous; both parted ways with him: the second - when S. became indifferent to political issues and focused all his attention on the social, the first - when S. began to introduce a religious and mystical element into his teaching) and gave them important guiding ideas, for the proof of which he always needed, however, in the studies of his students.

He did not express his teaching in a systematic way; his very thought was often vague. The so-called system of S.-Simonism was created not by him, but by his students.

In all areas, he only outlined new directions. Not satisfied with the concepts of "personality" and "state", which were operated on in the 18th century. and the liberalism of the nineteenth century, it gives between them a place and even a predominant meaning to "society", in which the individual is an organic particle, the state in relation to the individual is something derivative. Society at any given moment is determined by a certain organization of material forces and by a certain world outlook corresponding to this organization. The course of historical events depends on the change - very slow - in the ratio of material particles. The laws that govern social changes are subject to scientific study, after which it will be possible to establish precise rules to guide society.

This explains the indifference of S. to politics and the emphasis on the social side of the life of peoples; hence his condemnation of the former historical science, which, in his words, was a mere biography of power. The idea of the need to transform history is closely connected with his views on the economic evolution of Europe, to which he even gave a general formula: the history of Europe was for him the transformation of a military society into an industrial one, and the evolution of labor seemed to him as a sequence of slavery, serfdom and free mercenary work, behind which, in turn, the stage of social work (travail sociétaire) must follow. In general, with all his teachings about society, S. connected his name with the first stage of the evolution of positivism, and the views expressed by him in recent years regarding the working class made him the founder of socialism.

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Born into an aristocratic family descended from the son of Charlemagne, Charlemagne. Received home education; among his teachers was the famous encyclopedist D "Alamber. Already in his adolescence, he discovered extraordinary willpower and ambition. In 1777 he began military service in an infantry regiment. In 1783 he took part in the American War of Independence, where he successfully proved himself; upon returning, he was awarded became colonel.But the military career did not attract him, and he retired.The revolution in France met with enthusiasm and even refused the title of earl.Engaged in operations in real estate and financial speculation, created a large fortune. he was rescued by the Thermidorian coup.

Rich life experience, the disasters of the era and the collapse of revolutionary ideals led him to the idea of a new science, which was supposed to lead humanity out of the impasse and show the way to a perfect social order. Feeling a lack of knowledge, in 1799 he began to actively engage in self-education, attended lectures at the Polytechnic School in Paris, became close to scientists, among whom were J. L. Lagrange, G. Monge, C. Berthollet, F. Gall and others. fortune, became a scribe in a pawnshop. He developed his ideas, exhausted from poverty and labor, until his former servant took over his maintenance and the costs of publishing his works. In 1803, his first work, Letters from a Resident of Geneva to His Contemporaries, was published. From the pen of Saint-Simon came out: "Introduction to the scientific works of the XIX century." (1808), "Note on General Gravity" (1813), "Note on the Science of Man" (1813), "On the Reorganization of European Society" (1814). Several issues of the collections "Industry" (1814-1816), "Organizer" (1819-1820) were published. To promote his ideas, he sent his own rewritten works to scientists, statesmen, including Napoleon, and even the king. But he did not receive the expected support and recognition and was sometimes perceived as insane. After the death of his benefactor, he lived and published his works on odd jobs and occasional help from benefactors and supporters. Gradually, a small circle of students and like-minded people formed around him. Among the secretaries of Saint-Simon were the future historian O. Thierry and the future founder of positivism O. Comte, who were strongly influenced by him. In 1822, when his plight worsened, he attempted suicide, as a result of which he lost an eye. His last works are Catechism of the Industrialists (1824), Arguments Literary, Philosophical and Industrial (1825), New Christianity (1825). After the death of Saint-Simon, his students B. P. Anfantin, S. A. Bazaar, O. Rodrigue, and others tried to systematize his numerous and varied heritage.

The cult of science

The decisive role in shaping the views of Saint-Simon was played by the natural science of modern times, primarily Newton's mechanics and the teachings of Descartes, French materialism and the Enlightenment, as well as the political economy of A. Smith and J. B. Say. Deifying science and scientists (in Newton he saw a prophet), Saint-Simon, however, criticized them for the dominance of empiricism, fragmentation and specialization of knowledge, reproaching them for the absolutization of the empirical-analytical method of cognition. He considered the most fruitful synthetic method, which would allow to combine the natural disciplines and social science, to create a single science, which should be based on physics. The world, according to Saint-Simon, is based on the law of universal gravitation, through which God controls the universe. According to Saint-Simon, the whole world is matter, solid or liquid; All phenomena of nature, including the human body, are the product of their interaction. Believing that humanity was in crisis, he called for more attention to be paid to the "science of man", the moral and political sciences, which he recommended to rebuild on the model of the natural sciences and make them "positive", that is, operating with reliable and accurate knowledge, for which they must rely on physiology. Politics, according to Saint-Simon, is the science of production. He put forward the idea of the coincidence of the evolution of the human race and the individual.

Biography

Thoughts and ideas

Early views of Saint-Simon

Saint-Simon and communist ideology

Publication of works in Russian translation

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